when you say nothing at all

CASE-CONTROL STUDY OF LUNG CANCER RISK FROM RESIDENTIAL RADON EXPOSURE IN WORCESTER COUNTY, MASSACHUSETTS.

2008-04-21T00:45:00.000-07:00

Paper Health Physics. The Radiation Safety Journal. 94(3):228-241, March 2008.Thompson, Richard E. *; Nelson, Donald F. +; Popkin, Joel H. ++; Popkin, Zenaida ++
Abstract: mdash;: A study of lung cancer risk from residential radon exposure and its radioactive progeny was performed with 200 cases (58% male, 42% female) and 397 controls matched on age and sex, all from the same health maintenance organization. Emphasis was placed on accurate and extensive year-long dosimetry with etch-track detectors in conjunction with careful questioning about historic patterns of in-home mobility. Conditional logistic regression was used to model the outcome of cancer on radon exposure, while controlling for years of residency, smoking, education, income, and years of job exposure to known or potential carcinogens. Smoking was accounted for by nine categories: never smokers, four categories of current smokers, and four categories of former smokers. Radon exposure was divided into six categories (model 1) with break points at 25, 50, 75, 150, and 250 Bq m-3, the lowest being the reference. Surprisingly, the adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were, in order, 1.00, 0.53, 0.31, 0.47, 0.22, and 2.50 with the third category significantly below 1.0 (p < aor =" 0.30" p =" 0.005">

Long-Term Use of Supplemental Multivitamins, Vitamin C, Vitamin E, and Folate Does Not Reduce the Risk of Lung Cancer

2008-04-21T00:38:00.000-07:00

Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, and 2 Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; 3 Epidemiologic Research and Information Center, and 4 Health Services Research and Development, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington; 5 Departments of Epidemiology and Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and 6 Cancer Prevention Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Christopher Slatore, M.D., University of Washington, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Box 356522, Seattle, WA 98195-6522. E-mail: cslatore@u.washington.edu
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Rationale: Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality in the United States. Although supplements are used by half the population, limited information is available about their specific effect on lung cancer risk.
Objectives: To explore the association of supplemental multivitamins, vitamin C, vitamin E, and folate with incident lung cancer.
Methods: Prospective cohort of 77,721 men and women aged 50–76 years from Washington State in the VITAL (VITamins And Lifestyle) study. Cases were identified through the Seattle–Puget Sound SEER (Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results) cancer registry.
Measurements and Main Results: Hazard ratios (HRs) for incident lung cancer according to 10-year average daily use of supplemental multivitamins, vitamin C, vitamin E, and folate. A total of 521 cases of lung cancer were identified. Adjusting for smoking, age, and sex, there was no inverse association with any supplement. Supplemental vitamin E was associated with a small increased risk of lung cancer (HR, 1.05 for every 100-mg/d increase in dose; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.00–1.09; P = 0.033). This risk of supplemental vitamin E was largely confined to current smokers (HR, 1.11 for every 100-mg/d increase; 95% CI, 1.03–1.19; P < 0.01) and was greatest for non–small cell lung cancer (HR, 1.07 for every 100-mg/d increase; 95% CI, 1.02–1.12; P = 0.004).
Conclusions: Supplemental multivitamins, vitamin C, vitamin E, and folate were not associated with a decreased risk of lung cancer. Supplemental vitamin E was associated with a small increased risk. Patients should be counseled against using these supplements to prevent lung cancer.

Cigarette Smoking and Risk of Fatal Breast Cancer

2008-04-21T00:36:00.000-07:00

From the Department of Epidemiology and Statistics, American Cancer Society Atlanta, GA
Reprint requests to Dr. Eugenia E. Calle, American Cancer Society, 1599 Clifton Road, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329
The authors examined the association of fatal breast cancer and cigarette smoking in a large, prospective mortality study of US adults. After 6 years of follow-up, 880 cases of fatal breast cancer were observed in a cohort of 604,412 women who were cancer-free at interview in 1982. Cox proportional hazards modeling, adjusted for other risk factors, found that current smoking was significantly related to fatal breast cancer risk (adjusted rate ratio (RR) = 1.26, 95% confidence interval (Cl) 1.05–1.50). A negative association was observed for former smokers, but this was not statistically significant (RR = 0.85, 95% Cl 0.70–1.03). The association of current smoking with fatal breast cancer risk increased with increasing numbers of cigarettes per day and with total number of years smoked. For smokers of 40 or more cigarettes per day, the rate ratio was 1.74 (95% Cl 1.15–2.62). The authors hypothesize that these results may be due to either a poorer prognosis among breast cancer cases who smoke or a delayed diagnosis among current smokers who do not receive mammograms as often as never or former smokers. Women who smoke should be targeted for breast cancer screening services.
breast neoplasms; cohort studies; risk; smoking; women
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Enviromental Tobacco Smoke and Lung Cancer Risk in Nonsmoking Women

2008-04-21T00:30:00.000-07:00

Heather G. Stockwell*, Allan L. Goldman, Gary H. Lyman, Charles I. Noss, Adam W. Armstrong, Patricia A. Pinkham, Elizabeth C. Candelora, Marcia R. Brusa
Department of Epideminology and Biostatistics, University of South Florida Tampa, FlaDepartment of Internal Medcine, University of South Florida Tampa, FlaDepartment of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Public Health University of South Florida Tampa, Fla
*Correspondence to: Heather G. Stockwell, Sc.D., Department of Epidemiolgy and Biostatistics, College of Public Health Unversity of south Florida, Tampa, FL 33612–3805.
Background: Exposure to envionmental tobacco smoke (passive smoking )has been suggested to be a cause of lung cancer, although early epidemiologic studies have produced in-consistent result. Purpose: We conducted an epidemilogic case-control study to assess the relation-ship between exposure to envirmental tobacco smoke and lungcancer risk among women who have never smoked (i.e., having smoked for a total of <6 n ="210)" n =" 301)" or =" 2.4;" ci =" 1.1–5.4).">

Skin Cancer in a Subtropical Australian Population: Incidence and Lack of Association with Occupation

2008-04-21T00:23:00.000-07:00

Queensiand Institute of Medical Research Queensiand, Australia2Sunshine Coast sQueensiand, Australia3Sullivan and Nicolaldes Gold Coast, Queensiand, Australia
Reprint requests to Dr. Adele Green, Epidemiology Unit, Queensiand Institute of Medical Research, P.O. Royal Brisbane Hospital, Queensland 4029, Australia.
Because it is not possible to monitor skin cancer accurately using routine methods, special surveys have been undertaken in Nambour, a typical subtropical community in Queensland, Australia. Estimates of incidence reported here are based on skin cancers medically treated between 1985 and 1992 and new cases diagnosed by dermatologists in two examination clinics in 1986 and 1992. Among men and women aged 18–69 years in 1986, age-adjusted incidence rates of basal cell carcinoma were 2,074 and 1,579 per 100,000 per year, respectively—the highest incidence rates of a specific cancer ever reported. Squamous cell carcinoma occurred at half the rate of basal cell carcinoma among men and at about one third the rate among women. Although as expected, fair skin, a history of repeated sunburns, and nonmalignant solar skin damage diagnosed by dermatologists were strongly associated with both types of skin cancer, outdoor occupation was not. Significant self-selection was observed among outdoor workers, whereby people with fair or medium complexions and a tendency to sunburn were systematically underrepresented among those in long-term outdoor occupations although they accounted for more than 80 percent of the community study sample. The mitigating effect of this selection bias may partly explain the paradox of the lack of quantitative evidence of a causal link between sun exposure and skin cancer in humans. Am J Epidemiol 199

cause of cancer

2008-04-21T00:20:00.000-07:00

Alcohol Consumption and All-Cause and Cancer Mortality among Middle-aged Japanese Men: Seven-year Follow-up of the JPHC Study Cohort I.
Original Contributions American Journal of Epidemiology. 150(11):1201-1207, December 1, 1999.Tsugane, Shoichiro 1; Fahey, Michael T. 1; Sasaki, Satoshi 1; Baba, Shunroku 2; for the JPHC Study Group *
Abstract: To examine the association between alcohol consumption and mortality in Japan, where mortality and lifestyle differ substantially from Western countries, a population-based prospective study was conducted in four public health center areas as part of the Japan Public Health Center-based prospective study on cancer and cardiovascular disease (JPHC). After excluding subjects with self-reported serious diseases at baseline, 19,231 men aged 40-59 years who reported their alcohol intake were followed from 1990 through 1996, and 548 deaths were documented. The association between all-cause mortality and alcohol consumption was J-shaped. The lowest risk was observed for men who consumed 1-149 g/week (relative risk (RR) = 0.64, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.46, 0.88), while the highest risk was seen for men who consumed >=450 g/week (RR = 1.32, 95% CI 1.00, 1.74), after adjustment for possible confounders. The association did not change after excluding deaths that occurred in the first 2 years of follow-up. However, the association was modified by smoking, and beneficial effects of moderate drinking were largely limited to nonsmokers. The risk of cancer death showed a similar trend, but increased more in heavy drinkers. The background characteristics of moderate drinkers were healthier than either nondrinkers or heavy drinkers. The authors conclude that moderate alcohol consumption was associated with the lowest risks of all-cause and cancer mortality, especially among nonsmokers.
Copyright 1999 by The Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. All rights reserved.

ABSTRACT

2008-04-21T00:19:00.000-07:00

Each year, the American Cancer Society estimates the number of new cancer cases and deaths expected in the United States in the current year and compiles the most recent data on cancer incidence, mortality, and survival based on incidence data from the National Cancer Institute, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries and mortality data from the National Center for Health Statistics. Incidence and death rates are age-standardized to the 2000 US standard million population. A total of 1,437,180 new cancer cases and 565,650 deaths from cancer are projected to occur in the United States in 2008. Notable trends in cancer incidence and mortality include stabilization of incidence rates for all cancer sites combined in men from 1995 through 2004 and in women from 1999 through 2004 and a continued decrease in the cancer death rate since 1990 in men and since 1991 in women. Overall cancer death rates in 2004 compared with 1990 in men and 1991 in women decreased by 18.4% and 10.5%, respectively, resulting in the avoidance of over a half million deaths from cancer during this time interval. This report also examines cancer incidence, mortality, and survival by site, sex, race/ethnicity, education, geographic area, and calendar year, as well as the proportionate contribution of selected sites to the overall trends. Although much progress has been made in reducing mortality rates, stabilizing incidence rates, and improving survival, cancer still accounts for more deaths than heart disease in persons under age 85 years. Further progress can be accelerated by supporting new discoveries and by applying existing cancer control knowledge across all segments of the population.

Cancer Statistics, 2008

2008-04-21T00:14:00.000-07:00

Ahmedin Jemal, DVM, PhD, Rebecca Siegel, MPH, Elizabeth Ward, PhD, Yongping Hao, PhD, Jiaquan Xu, MD*, Taylor Murray and Michael J. Thun, MD, MS
Dr. Jemal is Strategic Director, Cancer Surveillance, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.Ms. Siegel is Manager, Surveillance Information Services, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.Dr. Ward is Managing Director, Surveillance Research, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.Dr. Hao is Senior Epidemiologist, Surveillance Research, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.Dr. Xu is Epidemiologist, Mortality Statistics Branch, Division of Vital Statistics, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Hyattsville, MD.Mr. Murray is Manager, Surveillance Data Systems, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.Dr. Thun is Vice President, Department of Epidemiology and Surveillance Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA.

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2008-04-21T00:13:00.000-07:00

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Conclusion

2008-04-21T00:09:00.000-07:00

We found no statistical significant association between arsenic concentrations in Danish drinking-water and the risk for cancers of the lung, bladder, kidney, liver, prostate, or colorectum. The results indicated inverse associations between arsenic concentrations in Danish drinking-water and risk for skin cancers, suggesting that arsenic might have a protective effect at low concentrations. The results also indicated that arsenic in drinking-water might increase the risk for breast cancer. The findings should be interpreted with caution, and more studies are needed to confirm the results.

Discussion

2008-04-20T23:49:00.000-07:00

We found no increased risk for cancers of the lung, bladder, kidney, liver, prostate, and colorectum, and for melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers in association with low levels of exposure to arsenic through drinking-water. The risk for skin cancers decreased with increasing exposure. Results adjusted for enrollment area showed no significant risk associations except for with breast cancer, when the time-weighted average arsenic exposure was used and for melanoma skin cancer in the quartile-based analyses.
The median and mean arsenic exposure at enrollment were 0.7 and 1.2 μg/L, respectively, which are comparable to the concentrations found in Finland (median = 0.14 μg/L) (Kurttio et al. 1999), and the United States (mean = 2 μg/L) (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry 2005) but much lower than those found in some areas of Asia and Latin America.
Although previous studies provide evidence for an etiologic relationship between arsenic in drinking-water and cancer, they do not predict the cancer risk of low doses (Karagas et al. 2001). The arsenic levels in the Danish drinking-water are 100–1,000 times lower than those reported in studies from Asia and Latin America. It is possible that arsenic concentrations in the Danish drinking-water are below a low effect level; however, the results of the present study cannot rule out a weak adverse effect that is impossible to detect with the method used and the study size.
Conflicting results have been obtained in studies of arsenic and cancer conducted in areas of low arsenic concentrations in drinking-water. A Finnish case–cohort study reported increased risk for bladder cancer in association with exposure to arsenic (Kurttio et al. 1999) based on 61 cases and significant only for exposure 2–9 years before diagnosis for one of the three exposure measures used (Kurttio et al. 1999). Interpretation of the finding is therefore not straightforward. In contrast, our study, based on 214 cases, showed no increased bladder cancer risk. In line with the results of our study, the Finnish study did not find an association with kidney cancer (Kurttio et al. 1999). Studies carried out in the United States found no increased risk for bladder cancer with increasing arsenic exposure (Bates et al. 1995; Lamm et al. 2004; Steinmaus et al. 2003) in areas with arsenic concentrations in drinking-water of 0.5–160 μg/L. In one of these studies an insignificant tendency toward decreasing bladder cancer risk was seen with increasing exposure to arsenic ranging from 3 to 60 μg/L (Lamm et al. 2004). Another study in the United States showed an increased risk for prostate cancer in association with arsenic exposure (Lewis et al. 1999). We did not find such an association.
In the present study, higher exposure to arsenic was significantly associated with a lower risk for non-melanoma skin cancer in the overall analyses. Similar risk estimates were seen for melanoma skin cancer, although the results were not significant, possibly because of the small number of cases. These findings conflict with the results of some previous studies. In Taiwan, Wu et al. (1989) found a significant dose–response relation for non-melanoma skin cancer in association with exposure to arsenic, and a study in the United States showed a 1.9 times higher risk for skin cancer (type not specified) among persons exposed to drinking-water containing > 10 μg/L arsenic than those exposed to <>Knobeloch et al. 2006). Another study of exposure to low levels of arsenic showed no association with non-melanoma skin cancer (Karagas et al. 2001). In a study of non-melanoma skin cancers in which arsenic in toenail tissue was used as bio-marker of exposure, a nonlinear dose–response relation was seen with low exposures, with an inverse association at low levels and an increasing risk with concentrations > 0.09–0.11 μg/g toenail, corresponding to 1–2 μg/L in drinking-water (Karagas et al. 2002). This result is consistent with our findings, as only a small proportion of the cohort members were exposed to drinking-water containing arsenic at > 2 μg/L.
In an experiment in cells in vitro a low dose of arsenic had a protective effect against oxidative stress and DNA damage, supporting the hypothesis that low doses of arsenic could protect against cancer. In this study, the point, at which the protective effect was out weighted by the toxic effect was 1 μmol/L corresponding to 50–60 μg/L (Snow et al. 2005). The findings of inverse risk associations for skin cancer in the present study further support the hypothesis that low doses of arsenic might be inversely associated with risk for skin cancer.
Nevertheless, the negative association between arsenic and non-melanoma skin cancer virtually disappeared when adjusted for enrollment area and when separate risk estimates were made for the two enrollment areas. This might be interpreted as confounding by some regional factor for which we did not adjust. For example, exposure to the sun is a risk factor for both melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer (Scotto et al. 1996), and this might have confounded the results of the overall analysis if such exposure was more pronounced in the Copenhagen area, as the arsenic concentrations in drinking-water were generally higher in the Aarhus area. This interpretation is, however, contradicted by the fact that the inverse risk association for melanoma skin cancer persisted when risk estimates were calculated separately for the two enrollment areas. Further, the lower risk for confounding obtained by adjustment for enrollment area might be counterbalanced because this adjustment would make it more difficult to detect any effect of arsenic exposure, as part of the variation in exposure relates to differences between the two enrollment areas. Altogether, our finding of negative associations between arsenic and non-melanoma and melanoma skin cancers should be interpreted with caution.
To our knowledge, no epidemiologic study of an association between arsenic and cancer has included breast cancer. The borderline significance of the finding of an increased risk for breast cancer in association with arsenic exposure among cohort members enrolled in the Aarhus area should therefore be interpreted with caution, and more studies are needed to determine if arsenic in drinking-water is a risk factor for breast cancer.
Cases were identified in the virtually complete, reliable nationwide Danish Cancer Registry (Storm et al. 1997), and the Danish Population Registry provided complete follow-up of the cohort members. Although the exposure of the cohort members was assessed independently of who developed cancer, some degree of nondifferential misclassification of arsenic exposure inevitably occurred. This would in most cases be expected to bias risk estimates toward the neutral value (Rothman 2002), and it may therefore have contributed to the null results of the present study. Factors contributing to such exposure misclassification include the following: a) Recent arsenic measurement were assumed to represent historical exposure, in line with the approach of other studies (Bates et al. 2004; Kurttio et al. 1999). b) For 14% of the addresses, we assumed that the nearest water utility provided drinking-water to the address. However, exclusion of persons, who had lived at one of these addresses changed the risk estimates only marginally. c) Some water utilities might have closed during the study period, and supply structures might have changed. It is likely though that drinking-water from past and present water utilities that are spatially close would have similar arsenic concentrations, as the geologic composition of aquifers is fairly homogeneous over small geographic areas. d) There is a lack of information about exposure to arsenic through foodstuffs; however, arsenic in food occurs mainly in the less harmful organic form, and the typical Danish diet does not include arsenic-rich foods such as seaweed, skate, or stingray (Mohri et al. 1990). e) There is uncertainty in the reported intake of tap water. However, the results for time-weighted average arsenic exposure would not be affected by such misclassification, and the results for these two exposure measures gave similar results. f) Use of domestic water supply as a predictor for source of drinking-water implies some uncertainty (Jones et al. 2006). Because most of the water supply areas in the study covered large areas, such misclassification would apply mainly to persons, who traveled far between home and work.
Lack of information on residential histories before 1970 could also have led to misclassification of the exposure. Different migration patterns for cases and noncases before 1970 would imply differential misclassification, but we consider this unlikely because of the long time span between the period of unknown migrations (before 1970) and time of diagnosis for the cancer cases (after inclusion between 1994 and 1997). The strengths of our study include the large study population, the reliable population-based Danish registers, and adjustment for many potential confounding factors. Also, the precise link between place of residence and water supply and the measurements of arsenic concentrations in the drinking-water that was piped to the consumers adds strength to the study.
The limitations of the study include the overall low arsenic concentration in Danish drinking-water and lack of information on other sources of arsenic. Further, the exposure of cohort members before 1970 could not be estimated, as the residential histories before that date were unknown. Therefore we were not able to assess early-life arsenic exposure, which is an important limitation of this study because early environmental exposures might be most significant for cancer risk. Finally, measurement of arsenic in nails or urine would provide more precise estimates of the personal exposure and should be included in future studies whenever possible.

Results

2008-04-20T23:37:00.000-07:00

Demographic, dietary, occupational, and other characteristics of the cohort members are presented in Table 1.

Table 1
Demographic, lifestyle, and dietary characteristics of the cohort.
The time-weighted arsenic exposure of the cohort members calculated from 41 years of age up to date of enrollment varied between 0.05 and 25.3 μg/L, with a median concentration of 0.7 μg/L and a mean concentration of 1.2 μg/L. The exposure was generally higher among those enrolled in Aarhus than those enrolled in the Copenhagen area. Aarhus: mean = 2.3 μg/L, median = 2.1 μg/L; Copenhagen: mean = 0.7 μg/L, median = 0.6 μg/L (Table 2).

Table 2
Time-weighted average arsenic exposure from 41 years of age to date of enrollment.
Figure 3.
illustrates a weak tendency towards increasing drilling depth over the last 18 years. Drilling depth explained 4% of the variation in arsenic concentration (R2 = 0.04; n = 3,396).
Figure 3
Groundwater drilling depths as a function of time, based on 3,396 measurements from drillings used for drinking-water.
The results without adjustment for enrollment area (Table 3)
showed no significant association between exposure to arsenic and risk for any type of cancer, except for non-melanoma skin cancer, for which higher arsenic exposure was associated with lower risk. The IRR for non-melanoma skin cancer was 0.88 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.84–0.94] per micrograms per liter increase in time-weighted average exposure. A similar pattern was seen for cumulated arsenic exposure, with an IRR of 0.95 (95% CI, 0.92–0.97) for a 5-mg increase in exposure. The risk estimates for kidney cancer and melanoma were correspondingly low for both exposure measures but insignificant. Results adjusted for enrollment area (Table 3)
showed virtually no effect for non-melanoma skin cancer, a stronger but still insignificant inverse risk association for melanoma skin cancer, and a significantly increased risk for breast cancer in association with time-weighted average exposure to arsenic (IRR = 1.05; 95% CI, 1.01–1.10).
Table 3
Incidence rate ratios for cancer in association with arsenic exposure.
Quartile-based analyses showed an IRR of 0.73 (95% CI, 0.59–0.91) for non-melanoma skin cancer for the upper quartile compared with the lower quartile of cumulated exposure from 41 years of age to date of diagnosis, but no decrease in risk was seen after adjustment for enrollment area (IRR = 1.14). The similar IRRs for melanoma skin cancer were 0.52 (95% CI, 0.28–0.98; p = 0.04) and 0.53 (95% CI, 0.32–0.88; p = 0.01) with and without adjustment for enrollment area respectively. The risk did not differ significantly between upper and lower quartile for any of the other cancers regardless of adjustment for enrollment area or not (all p > 0.12) (results not shown).
Spline and quadratic tests showed deviation from a linear dose–response relation for cancers of the breast, lung, prostate, and liver, and for melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. When evaluated graphically, the dose–response relation for non-melanoma skin cancer showed a systematic nonlinear pattern, with a decreasing trend that leveled off with increasing exposure (Figure 4).
The departure from linearity appeared to be random and nonbiological for the other cancers (results not shown).
Figure 4
Dose–response curve for non-melanoma skin cancer. Reference, IRR = 1 at average time-weighted arsenic exposure of 0.05 μg/L.
In the overall analyses (Table 3,
no adjustment for area), the risk estimates were affected to only a small extent by calculating time-weighted average exposure to arsenic from 1970 for all cohort members regardless of age, by introduction of a 5-year latency or by exclusion of individuals for whom the closest water utility was used as the expected source of drinking-water at the residence (results not shown). Furthermore, these results showed no significant interaction between arsenic and smoking, as the IRR estimates for never, former, and current smokers were not significantly different for cancers of the lung or bladder or non-melanoma skin cancer (all p > 0.12) (results not shown).
Table 4
shows inconsistent directions of the risk association in the two enrollment areas for non-melanoma skin cancer and a consistent direction of the risk association (inverse) for melanoma skin cancer, which was insignificant for both enrollment areas. Further, a consistent direction of the risk association for breast cancer (higher exposure was associated with higher risk) was observed, which was statistically significant in Aarhus when the time-weighted average exposure measure was applied (IRR = 1.06; 95% CI, 1.0–1.11; p = 0.02). None of the risk estimates differed significantly between the two areas (all p > 0.15).
Table 4
Incidence rate ratios for cancer in association with arsenic exposure in the two enrollment areas.

Potential confounding factors

2008-04-20T23:32:00.000-07:00

Potential confounding factors.
We used data on smoking, alcohol consumption, education, body mass index, daily intake of fruit/vegetables, red meat, fat and dietary fibers, skin reaction to sun, hormone replacement therapy use, reproduction, and occupation collected at enrollment into the cohort to adjust for potential confounding factors for each type of cancer. Further, data was analyzed both with and without adjustment for enrollment area.
Statistical analyses.
Statistical analyses were carried out with the PHREG procedure of SAS 8.2 software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRRs) for cancer associated with the time-weighted average and cumulative arsenic exposure. Age was used as the time axis to ensure that the estimates were based on comparisons of individuals of the same age. The analyses were corrected for delayed entry, so that individuals were considered at risk only from the age at entry into the cohort. All analyses were stratified by sex. The age of 41 years was chosen as the starting point for calculating exposure because the oldest person in the cohort was 41 in 1970 when the residential histories began. This ensured that the exposure assessment started at the same age for all individuals. Both exposure measures—time-weighted average exposure per micrograms per liter since age 41 and total cumulated exposure per 5 mg since age 41—were included in the model as time-dependent variables.
Cohort members were censored at age of death, emigration, cancer diagnosis or if they had moved to an address with unknown arsenic concentration.
The associations between arsenic exposure measures and cancer risk were modeled as straight lines, and the analyses were adjusted for known risk factors to control for potential confounding. The linear assumption was evaluated with a linear spline (Greenland 1995), with three boundaries placed at the quartiles of the time-weighted average exposure at the time of enrollment into the cohort. These were included as covariates in the Cox model, and linearity was assessed graphically and by a numerical test. To evaluate linearity, we also tested if an additional quadratic term improved the model fit. Further, we analyzed risk in association with quartiles of cumulated exposure at the time of diagnosis for cancer cases to investigate if the risk was higher or lower in association with the highest exposures.
Analyses were repeated using time-weighted average exposure to arsenic on the basis of addresses occupied from 1970 for all cohort members regardless of age. An additional analysis included a 5-year lag between exposure and cancer diagnosis, that is, excluding the 5 years before the cancer diagnosis in the exposure assessment of cases and a similar period for the non-cancer cohort members. We also repeated analyses after exclusion of individuals who had lived at an address for which the closest water utility was used as the expected source of drinking-water.
Arsenic concentrations were generally higher for persons enrolled in the Aarhus area than those in the Copenhagen area. This might imply confounding from risk factors that were not accounted for that differed between the Aarhus and the Copenhagen areas. Therefore, we repeated analyses with adjustment for enrollment area, knowing that such adjustment limited the exposure contrasts evaluated in the analyses.
For initial analyses (without adjustment for area) providing p-values ≤ 0.2, separate estimates of the association with arsenic exposure were calculated for the Aarhus and Copenhagen enrollment areas by including an interaction term in the model. This was to test the consistency of the results. A persistent association in both areas would strengthen the confidence in the result. We tested the null hypothesis that the effect of arsenic exposure was the same in the two areas (test for interaction).
On the basis of the results of previous studies, the associations between exposure to arsenic and cancers of the lung and bladder and non-melanoma skin cancer were estimated for never, former, and current smokers separately, and we tested for different effects of arsenic between the three smoking status categories.

Arsenic exposure

2008-04-20T23:30:00.000-07:00

We calculated two exposures for each cohort member. The first was a time-weighted average exposure, calculated as the arsenic concentration in drinking-water multiplied by the time lived at each address, summed for all residential addresses during the study period and divided by the total observation time, with the unit micrograms per liter (Equation 1).

Second, we calculated the cumulated arsenic exposure by cumulating the products of “arsenic level × time” for each address occupied during the total observation period and multiplied by the total daily intake of tap water, with the unit milligram (Equation 2). The total daily intake of tap water was calculated as the sum of intake of tap water, coffee, tea, and fruit syrup diluted with tap water, which was reported at enrollment into the cohort.

Water supply and arsenic measurements

2008-04-20T23:22:00.000-07:00

Arsenic concentrations in Danish drinking-water were obtained from a database managed by the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (Thomsen et al. 2004), which contains the results of chemical tests in water utilities in Denmark. Since 2001, it has been compulsory for water utilities to measure arsenic in the drinking-water and to report the results to the database. The spatial locations of the water utilities were determined by their geographic coordinates, which were also registered in the database. We calculated the average arsenic concentration for each water utility on the basis of 4,954 measurements in 2,487 water utilities reported between 1987 and 2004, with most measurements dating from 2002–2004. The average at each water utility was assumed to represent arsenic concentrations throughout the study period 1970–2003. As drilling depth might affect arsenic concentrations and might have changed over time, we collected data on the drilling depth and analyzed the correlation with the arsenic concentration in drinking-water using Spearman’s correlation coefficient.
To assess the effect of arsenic in drinking-water on the risk for cancer among cohort members, it was essential to link the arsenic concentrations at the water utilities to each address of the cohort members. Therefore, information on the size and spatial location of 94 water supply areas was collected from local authorities and water utilities in 24 municipalities, covering the vast majority of the geocoded cohort addresses. Seventy-one of the collected water supply areas were supplied by only one water utility, whereas the water in 23 areas came from more than one utility. Therefore, we also collected details of the volume of water distributed from water utilities to these 23 areas to calculate water volume-weighted average arsenic concentrations. If, for example, an area received 40% of its water from one utility and 60% from another, the arsenic concentration in the area would be calculated as 0.4 × concentration at utility1 + 0.6 × concentration at utility2. The 94 water supply areas were mapped in ArcGIS 9.1 (Figure 2) and covered 84% of the cohort addresses.

Figure 2
Ninety-four water supply areas classified according to estimated average arsenic concentration (μg/L). These areas cover 84% of the 198,758 geocoded cohort addresses.
The geocoded cohort addresses, water utilities, and water supply areas with their arsenic concentrations were mapped in ArcGIS 9.1, and arsenic concentrations were assigned to the cohort members’ addresses, with the spatial join functionality. First, the 170,403 (84%) of the cohort addresses located within one of the mapped water supply areas were assigned an estimated arsenic concentration, by the “point-in-polygon” procedure. This procedure allocates the attributes of the polygon to all points within it. Second, 28,355 (14%) of the addresses were assigned the arsenic concentrations of the nearest water utility, by application of the “point-to-point”-spatial join. By this procedure all points in one data set will be given the attributes of the points in another data set based on shortest distance. The last 3,581 (2%) of the cohort addresses had no geographic reference and were allocated a “missing value” as arsenic concentration.
Arsenic exposure.
We calculated two exposures for each cohort member. The first was a time-weighted average exposure, calculated as the arsenic concentration in drinking-water multiplied by the time lived at each address, summed for all residential addresses during the study period and divided by the total observation time, with the unit micrograms per liter (Equation 1).

Materials and Methods

2008-04-20T23:20:00.000-07:00

Study population.
The study was based on the prospective Danish cohort Diet, Cancer and Health, which has been described in detail elsewhere (Tjønneland et al. 2007). In brief, 160,725 persons 50–64 years of age and living in one of 23 municipalities in the Copenhagen or Aarhus area were invited to participate. Of these, 57,053 persons (27,178 men and 29,875 women) accepted the invitation and were enrolled between 1993 and 1997. At enrollment, information was collected including on diet, beverages, smoking, education, medical conditions, occupations, reproductive factors, body mass index, and skin reaction to sun. The study “Diet Cancer and Health” has been approved by the relevant Scientific Committees and the Danish Data Protection Agency. Informed consent was obtained from all participants to search information from medical registers including the Danish Cancer Registry.
Since establishment of the Danish Central Population Registry in 1968, all citizens of Denmark have been given a unique personal identification number, which allows accurate linkage among Danish registers. The cohort members were followed up for cancer incidence in the population-based Danish Cancer Registry (Storm et al. 1997) from the time of enrollment until the date of first cancer diagnosis, emigration, death, or 1 August 2003, whichever came first. We included cancers of the lung, bladder, liver, kidney, prostate, female breast, and colorectum, and non-melanoma and melanoma skin cancers. Only first cancers were included, although a case of cancer was included even if it had been preceded by a non-melanoma skin cancer.
Of the 57,053 cohort members, we included 56,378 persons, who filled in the lifestyle questionnaire, reported daily intake of tap water, and had not had a cancer diagnosis before the enrollment.
Residential histories.
Using the personal identification numbers of the cohort members, we traced residential histories between 1970 and 2003 by record linkage to the Central Population Registry. With this method, we identified 202,339 unique addresses, each with a unique identification code composed of a municipality code, a road code, and a house number. The date the person had moved to and from the address was noted. The addresses were then linked to a database of all official addresses in Denmark, resulting in geographic coordinates for 198,758 (98%) of the cohort addresses. Subsequently, the addresses were mapped with the ArcGIS 9.1 geographic information system software (Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., Redlands, California, USA), and the proportion of addresses in each of the 271 Danish municipalities was calculated in relation to the total number of geocoded cohort addresses (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Distribution of geocoded cohort addresses (n = 198,758) in 271 Danish municipalities. The proportions are calculated as number of geocoded cohort addresses in each municipality divided by the total number of geocoded cohort addresses

Risk for Cancer in Denmark

2008-04-20T23:16:00.000-07:00

Arsenic is a ubiquitous element in the environment, where it occurs in both organic and inorganic forms; it can be found in food, water, soil, and airborne particles, and humans are widely exposed through these sources (Tchounwou et al. 2004). Arsenic can cause fatal acute poisoning, and long-term exposure has been associated with various cancers, diabetes, skin disease, chronic cough, and toxic effects in the liver, kidney, cardiovascular system, and the peripheral and central nervous systems (Vahter et al. 2006). Organic arsenic, which is less harmful than the inorganic forms, is most abundant in food, whereas inorganic arsenic compounds are found mainly in aquifers (Abernathy et al. 2003), where they accumulate by natural processes such as weathering, erosion, and biological activity, or eventually from anthropogenic contamination (Smedley and Kinniburgh 2005). Consequently, most health-related problems associated with arsenic are derived from groundwater used for drinking (Farago et al. 1997; Smedley and Kinniburgh 2005).
Epidemiologic studies in Asia (Chen et al. 1986, 1988; Tsuda et al. 1995; Wu et al. 1989) and Latin America (Ferreccio et al. 2000; Hopenhayn-Rich et al. 1996, 1998; Marshall et al. 2007) have shown that high arsenic concentrations (up to several hundred micrograms per liter) in drinking-water are associated with various internal cancers and with cancer of the skin. Some of these studies also provide evidence of a dose–response relation (Chen et al. 1986, 1988; Wu et al. 1989). However, few studies, most of which were conducted in the United States, have addressed the adverse effects of exposure to low doses of arsenic, and their results are inconsistent. Some showed a positive association between relatively low doses of arsenic and cancers of the skin, prostate, and bladder (Knobeloch et al. 2006; Kurttio et al. 1999; Lewis et al. 1999), whereas others showed no such effects (Bates et al. 1995; Karagas et al. 2001; Steinmaus et al. 2003). One study showed a nonsignificant decreasing risk for bladder cancer with increasing exposure to arsenic in the range of 3–60 μg/L (Lamm et al. 2004), and Karagas et al. (2002) found a U-shaped dose–response relation between exposure to arsenic and non-melanoma skin cancer, with a decreased risk at low levels and increased risk at higher levels. The existence of a threshold for the carcinogenic effect of arsenic has been debated, especially in the United States (Abernathy et al. 1996; Schoen et al. 2004), and some studies have suggested an interaction between exposure to arsenic and smoking in the causation of cancers of the lung, bladder and skin (Bates et al. 1995; Ferreccio et al. 2000; Knobeloch et al. 2006; Steinmaus et al. 2003; Tsuda et al. 1995).
Recent animal models for inorganic arsenic carcinogenesis suggest that the carcinogenicity of arsenic involves several mechanisms and co-exposure to other carcinogens (Burns et al. 2004; Cohen et al. 2007; Rossman et al. 2004; Waalkes et al. 2007; Wanibuchi et al. 2004). In vitro low concentrations of arsenic protected against oxidative stress and DNA damage (Snow et al. 2005), in accordance with the results of some of the epidemiologic studies (Karagas et al. 2002; Lamm et al. 2004). More studies are needed, however, to evaluate the possible carcinogenic effect of exposure to low concentrations of arsenic. The aim of this large, population-based cohort study was to determine if individual exposure to low levels of arsenic in drinking-water in Denmark is associated with a risk for cancer.

Abstract

2008-04-20T23:14:00.000-07:00

Background.
Arsenic is a well-known carcinogen, which is often found in drinking-water. Epidemiologic studies have shown increased cancer risks among individuals exposed to high concentrations of arsenic in drinking-water, whereas studies of the carcinogenic effect of low doses have had inconsistent results.
Objective.
Our aim was to determine if exposure to low levels of arsenic in drinking-water in Denmark is associated with an increased risk for cancer.
Methods.
The study was based on a prospective Danish cohort of 57,053 persons in the Copenhagen and Aarhus areas. Cancer cases were identified in the Danish Cancer Registry, and the Danish civil registration system was used to trace and geocode residential addresses of the cohort members. We used a geographic information system to link addresses with water supply areas, then estimated individual exposure to arsenic using residential addresses back to 1970. Average exposure for the cohort ranged between 0.05 and 25.3 μg/L (mean = 1.2 μg/L). Cox’s regression models were used to analyze possible relationships between arsenic and cancer.
Results.
We found no significant association between exposure to arsenic and risk for cancers of the lung, bladder, liver, kidney, prostate, or colorectum, or melanoma skin cancer; however, the risk for non-melanoma skin cancer decreased with increasing exposure (incidence rate ratio = 0.88/μg/L average exposure; 95% confidence interval, 0.84–0.94). Results adjusted for enrollment area showed no association with non-melanoma skin cancer.
Conclusions.
The results indicate that exposure to low doses of arsenic might be associated with a reduced risk for skin cancer.
Keywords: arsenic, cancer, cohort study, drinking-water, geographic information system

Arsenic in Drinking-Water and Risk for Cancer in Denmark

2008-04-20T23:08:00.000-07:00

Rikke Baastrup,1 Mette Sørensen,1 Thomas Balstrøm,2 Kirsten Frederiksen,1 Carsten Langtofte Larsen,3 Anne Tjønneland,1 Kim Overvad,4 and Ole Raaschou-Nielsen1
1 Danish Cancer Society, Institute of Cancer Epidemiology, Copenhagen, Denmark
2 Department of Geography and Geology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
3 Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Copenhagen, Denmark
4 Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Aalborg Hospital, Aarhus University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
Address correspondence to R. Baastrup, Danish Cancer Society, Institute of Cancer Epidemiology, Strandboulevarden 49, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark. Telephone: 45 35 25 76 86 . Fax: 45 35 25 77 31. E-mail: baastrup@cancer.dk

The authors declare they have no competing financial interests.
Received July 2, 2007; Accepted November 23, 2007.

Abstract

2008-04-20T22:59:00.000-07:00

Pearl is generally assigned to a date of composition in the 1380s; this study argues that the poem engages in debates on legal and political theory consonant with a date in the late 1380s, and that the standpoint taken would have been congenial to a noble, but probably not royal, audience, one bilingual in French as well as English. The poet engages with political and theological arguments persistently couched in legal terms: there may have been a general cultural trend among vernacular writers, orthodox as well as radical, to pursue such discussion within a legal context. Legal language and theology cannot be kept apart. Much of the vocabulary is susceptible of legal senses and nuances, even while it relates to everyday legal transactions, and does not require extended technical knowledge of the law. His evident fondness for exploiting the rich inheritance of theocratic symbolism establishes the strangeness of the Lamb's court, while not necessarily endorsing Richard II's tendencies towards absolute rule. The poet's concern with lawful possession affirms that, though an absolute ruler, God is no ‘tyrant’. The principles of equity and the rigour of the law are wholly consonant in his realm. Ulpian's famous dictum of Roman law, that ‘What pleases the prince has the force of law’, to which the poet alludes, could, in an English context, be reconciled with a more ‘constitutional’ model in which what pleased the king was Law, authorized by his magnates, and not just his personal will. It is argued that the synthesis of legal ideas in the poem makes Pearl a very ‘English’ poem, in which God's monarchy is described in terms deriving from Roman law, as found in Giles of Rome or John of Salisbury, but also in terms derived from the law of the land. Although it is possible to read the poem as a veiled criticism of Richard II's actions from around 1388 onwards, this is to diminish the poem and compromise its ‘plot’: the transfiguration of the pearl-maiden. But it is intimately grounded in fourteenth-century developments in doctrine, expressed in contemporary legal and political terms.

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2008-04-20T22:30:00.000-07:00

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Tell the truth on Lozada,’ Puno pleads with religious

2008-04-20T21:04:00.000-07:00

By Thea AlbertoINQUIRER.netFirst Posted 15:39:00 02/07/2008
MANILA, Philippines -- Interior Secretary Ronaldo Puno pleaded with religious who helped Rodolfo Noel Lozada Jr. to tell the truth about what happened the night the key witness in the Senate probe of the national broadband network (NBN) deal went missing after returning to the country.
"I don't understand why all of these things are being said now…I'm really disappointed with how people dealt with us," Puno told a press conference Thursday.
Lozada had been whisked away by unidentified men immediately after arriving at the Ninoy Aquino International Airport Tuesday evening, with his family claiming he had been abducted by government agents.
However, Razon claimed Lozada had sought protection and had been fetched at the airport by police. This has been denied by Lozada, who surfaced at the La Salle Greenhills school in Mandaluyong City.
Razon said the La Salle brothers and the nuns who accompanied Lozada when he surfaced early Thursday morning "knew the truth" that the witness was "free to move around" while he was in their care at the La Salle Greenhills dormitory.
"Dela Salle brothers have pity on us…tell the public the truth that…Lozada was peacefully asleep while the police who were guarding him were attacked by mosquitoes," said Puno.
Puno maintained Lozada was not abducted, as his family charge.
"If there's anybody who was hiding Lozada, that certainly was not us," he added.
Puno said the Senate must also call the religious to its probe to shed light.
"Tawagin din nila [ang] La Salle brothers na tahimik ngayon, na hindi sinasabi sa inyo [Let them call the La Salle brothers who are silent now, who are not telling] what happened," said Puno.

AMRSP Statement of Jun Lozada

2008-04-20T21:00:00.000-07:00

Association of Major Religious Superiors of the Philippines (AMRSP) Statement on the Jun Lozada Case
“…and the Truth shall set you free!”
We thank God for having been given the rare privilege of taking an active part in the triumph of truth over lies in a culture of fear and moral bankruptcy. We believe Jun Lozada is only an example of what is happening in our government institutions.We humbly recognize that God, in His mysterious ways had made us His instrument in enabling Jun Lozada to come out with his historic revelation to the Press and to the Senate: we consider him a modern David confronting a Goliath.Being with him these past days is a genuine spiritual experience – getting to know a man who embodies what is best in the Filipino. We saw his courage unfolding before our eyes as he tried to overcome his fears and apprehensions leading to his testimony before the Senate in unparalleled authenticity, courage, honesty, humility and unfailing courtesy.As he spoke we began to realize with growing horror and increasing indignation the extent of corruption that is systemic in our government bureaucracy and its toll on our suffering people who could actually live in well-being if the resources of this country were truly used for their good.We recognize the important role of the media people in this critical moment of our country. We commend them for the support they have given to Jun Lozada and for their unrelenting pursuance of the truth.It is unthinkable for us to imagine that this basic heroic act, that is putting Jun and his family not only in danger but in a state of dislocation that sees no immediate end, would be in vain. We cannot go back to “business as usual.” We commit ourselves to pursue a crusade for TRUTH. We call on all sectors of society especially the Church to join us in this commitment.Let us heed the call of the CBCP for communal action”“Truth hurts. Truth reveals. But the truth must be served. The truth will set our country free. Only the truth - not lies and deceit will set us free. This truth challenges us now to communal action.”

LOZADA IS AFRAID OF THE SENATE

2008-04-20T20:56:00.000-07:00

MANILA, FEBRUARY 13, 2008 (STAR) COMMONSENSE By Marichu A. Villanueva - The Senate’s inquiry into the alleged multi-million dollar kickbacks in the $329-million national broadband network (NBN) that went into the contract with the ZTE Corp. of China took up at length last Monday the purported “kidnapping” of their latest witness Rodolfo Noel Lozada Jr. This peripheral issue in the NBN-ZTE scandal has provided the latest drama into this whole mess, complete with tears and fears displayed in public by Lozada during that Senate hearing.
The cast of characters in this Senate hearing were personalities in and out of the government whose names were among those mentioned by Lozada on his allegedly being “kidnapped” last week upon his arrival at the Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA). They were: Department of Environment and Natural Resources Secretary Lito Atienza; deputy executive secretary Manny Gaite; Manila International Airport Authority (MIAA) general manager Alfonso Cusi; Philippine National Police (PNP) director-general Avelino “Sonny” Razon; NAIA assistant general manager for security Gen. Angel Atutubo; private counsel Atty. Antonio Bautista, Senior Superintendent Pol Mascariñas; and former presidential chief of staff Michael Defensor.
Despite breaking down in tears at one point of the Senate hearing, Lozada gallantly faced the eight resource persons from the government side who each refuted and clarified their supposed roles in his being “kidnapped”. In many instances, the televised Senate hearing caught Lozada’s facial reactions that indicated his disagreement to the testimonies of these people while they each passionately controverted his claims of his being “kidnapped” or held against his will.
Gen. Razon who is known for his even temper, at one point, had to raise his voice a few decibels higher as he tried to disprove allegations against him and his men who provided the security for Lozada but who were now accused as “kidnappers”. The PNP chief, seated beside the latest witness on the NBN-ZTE scandal during the Senate hearing, even gestured to Lozada’s being present there unharmed before the Senators as best evidence that the PNP succeeded in its assigned mission to protect him.
While Lozada was “vague” about what he was afraid of, Gen. Razon noted during the entire testimony at the Senate hearing that the witness was consistent, though, on three counts. One, Lozada “feared” for his life. Second, he was “afraid of being arrested by the Senate.” And third, he does not want to appear at the Senate because he is afraid to testify on what he knows about the alleged “overpricing” and kickbacks that went into the government-approved NBN-ZTE deal.
I asked yesterday the PNP chief what Lozada was telling him in whisper when the two of them were photographed at the Senate hearing. “Hirap na hirap na raw siya. Ayaw n’ya talagang humarap sa Senate investigation,” Razon quoted Lozada telling him even in whispers. It was very clear what Lozada was afraid of.
Raising a similar “snatching” incident of a Senate witness, Udong Mahusay was dug up during the hearing against Defensor. However, it backfired because it gave the opportunity to the former Arroyo Cabinet official to finally put on Senate record in proper perspective what really happened in that particular case. This was in reference to Defensor’s previous involvement in “snatching” a Senate witness, Mahusay, raised by Opposition Senator Chiz Escudero. Mahusay was the witness of Senator Panfilo “Ping” Lacson when the Opposition leader exposed the alleged “Jose Pidal” bank account of First Gentleman Jose Miguel Arroyo.
As in the case of Lozada, Defensor testified that Mahusay feared for his life when he called him up and sought out his assistance because he used to work for him and his family. Defensor recalled how he went all the way to Tagaytay to fetch Mahusay and took him to the PNP camp in Silang, Cavite. Defensor recalled how fearful he was that they might be followed by the armed men who took him to the safehouse provided by Lacson.
Like Udong Mahusay, Lacson told his Senate colleagues Lozada was also his witness in the ZTE scandal whom he first met on Dec. 3. In his own testimony of his alleged “kidnapping”, Lozada struck a sour note for Lacson when he mentioned his fears that he might end up being killed or salvaged by unidentified police security escorts when they reached Dasmariñas, Cavite. “Baka, ma-Dacer ako!” Lozada told the Senators. Of course, Lozada referred to the late public relations man, Salvador “Bubby” Dacer who, along with his driver, were kidnapped and killed in that place. The principal suspects in this twin murder case were officers of Lacson when he was the PNP chief during the term of former President Joseph Estrada. The case remains among the unsolved crimes in our country. The mastermind and perpetrators of the Dacer-Corbito twin murder case remain free.
But like trick of the hat, Lozada’s testimony at the Senate on his alleged “kidnapping” and implicating the First Gentleman into the NBN-ZTE scandal became the Opposition’s fodder to renew their call for the resignation of President Arroyo and Vice President Noli de Castro. No wonder, the planned Opposition-led protest rallies starting this Friday in Makati City are being primed in time when our country marks the anniversary of the February 1986 EDSA People Power Revolution.
It is very clear that people from both the administration and Opposition were desperate to get Lozada. Thus, the ZTE witness did not know where, or who, to turn to. He ended up, though, in the protective care of the De La Salle brothers and nuns whose previous resignation calls against the President were public knowledge. Although he kept saying he does not want to identify himself with any political persuasion on his crusade to help put an end to corruption in government, the poor guy lost on his way to redeem what was left in his soul. And that’s because some people in Church have dipped their fingers again into politics.

Health Knowledge Products

2008-04-20T20:52:00.000-07:00

Health PromotionMaterials and products of official health programs that are downloadable.
News ClippingsCompiled news articles on health taken from leading newspapers of the country. Also includes a searcheable database of archived health newsclips.
Photo GalleryThe DOH Photo Gallery features pictures taken during events, campaigns, issues. The photos on this site are deemed official and can be downloaded (opens another window).
PublicationsPublished official materials and documents (Annual Reports, Health Laws and Regulations compilations, manuals, researches and technical reports, health statistics, health promotion publications, etc.).
Research and StatisticsA compilation of health data such as health indicators, demographic profile, hospital statistics, surveys, surveillance and links to other health related data.
DatabasesCompilation of directories, health facilities, and similar reference databases.

The Philippine Presidents

2008-04-20T20:48:00.000-07:00

Fifth Philippine Republic
GLORIA MACAPAGAL-ARROYOhttp://www.op.gov.ph(Born- April 5, 1947)Fourth President of the Fifth Republic of the Philippines(Term- 2001 - Present)
The daughter of the late President Diosdado Macapagal. The second woman to be swept into the Presidency by a peaceful People Power revolution (EDSA II).
JOSEPH ESTRADA(Born- April 19,1937)Third President of the Fifth Republic of the Philippines(Term- 1998 - 2001)
Filipino film actor and director, later politician. He resigned after the impeachment trial against him collapsed.
FIDEL RAMOS(Born- March 18, 1928)Second President of the Fifth Republic of the Philippines(Term- June 30, 1992 - June 30, 1998)
As head of the State, his administration centerpiece program is the Philippines 2000, which aimed to uplift the Philippines as a newly industrialized country by the year 2000.
CORAZON AQUINO(Born- January 25, 1933)First President of the Fifth Republic of the Philippines(Term: February 25, 1986- June 30, 1992)
Political leader and the First Woman President of the Philippines. She succeeded her murdered husband, Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr.(a popular critic of the Marcos administration), as leader of the opposition to President Ferdinand Marcos.
Fourth Philippine Republic
FERDINAND MARCOS(Born- September 11, 1917, Died- September 28, 1989)Sixth and last President of the Third Republic of the Philippines(Term: December 30, 1965- December 30, 1973)President of the Fourth Republic of the Philippines(Term: June 30, 1981 - February 25,1986)
Philippine lawyer and politician who ruled by martial law and was ousted by a peaceful People Power Revolution in 1986.
Third Philippine Republic
DIOSDADO MACAPAGALhttp://www.macapagal.com/dm/Fifth President of the Third Republic of the Philippines(Term: December 30, 1961 - December 30, 1965)
Poet, politician, lawyer, diplomat, statesman, economist, and intellectual. Diosdado Macapagal was born to poverty but rose due to diligence and brilliance.
CARLOS GARCIA(Born- November 4, 1896, died- June 14, 1971)Fourth President of the Third Republic of the Philippines(Term: March 18, 1957- December 30, 1961)
Famous for his austerity program and policy. He maintained the strong tradition ties with the United States and sought closer relation with non-communist Asian countries.
RAMON MAGSAYSAY(Born- August 31, 1907, died- March 17, 1957)Third President of the Third Republic of the Philippines(Term: December 30, 1953- March 17, 1957)
Best known for successfully defeating the communist led Hukbalahap (Huk) Movement. Idol of the masses, champion of democracy, and freedom fighter.
ELPIDIO QUIRINO(Born- November 16, 1890, died- February 28, 1956)Second President, Third Republic of the Philippines(Term: April 17, 1948- November 10, 1953)
Political leader and second president of the Independence Republic of the Philippines.
MANUEL ROXAS(Born- January 1, 1892, died- April 15, 1948)Last President of the Commonwealth(Term: May 28, 1946- July 4, 1946)First President of the Third Republic of the Philippines(Term: July 4, 1946- April 15, 1948)
Political leader and first president of the Independence Republic of the Philippines.
Second Philippine Republic
JOSE LAUREL(Born- March 9, 1891, died- November 6, 1959)President of the Japanese Sponsored Republic(Term: October 14, 1943- August 15, 1945)
Became the President of the Philippines during the Japanese occupation of World War II.
Commonwealth of the Philippines
SERGIO OSMEÑA(Born- September 9, 1878, died- October 19, 1961)Second President of the Commonwealth(Term: August 1, 1944- May 27, 1946)
Filipino statesman, founder of the Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista) and President of the Philippines from 1944 to 1946.
MANUEL QUEZON(Born- August 19, 1878, died- August 1, 1944)First President of the Commonwealth(Term: November 15, 1935- August 1, 1944)
Filipino statesman, leader of the independence movement, and first president of the Philippine Commonwealth established under United States tutelage in 1935.
First Philippine Republic
EMILIO AGUINALDO(Born- March 22, 1869, died- February 6, 1964)President of the First Philippine Republic(Term: 1898- 1901)
Filipino leader who fought first against Spain and later against the United States for the Independence of the Philippines.

9 billion in mining investments expected to enter RP by 2011

2008-04-20T20:45:00.000-07:00

The government expects some $9 billion in mining investments to enter the country between now and 2011, in addition to the $1.4 billion in mining projects already on stream.This was revealed by Press Secretary Ignacio R. Bunye in his weekly column, View from the Palace, which comes out tomorrow."During the last three years, the DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources) reported 40 mining processing and exploration projects, together with 23 other exploration projects,” Bunye said."These have generated investments totaling US$1.4 billion and we see potential additional investments of another US $9 billion by 2011 generated by these projects alone," he said.The expected investments “are expected to come in between 2008 and 2010 when these projects progress to the construction and development stages.”“So our mining industry has the potential to grow by as much as five times to US $10 billion by 2011," Bunye said, adding that “this will support our bid to become a mining country defined by the World Bank, with exports from the minerals industry expected to grow to 6.5 percent of our country’s exports by 2011.”Bunye pointed out, however, that while the President is “focused in achieving significant growth in the mining sector,” she is also “very concerned about how development is done.”“It has created a lot of controversy in the past, and it is in the best interest of the mining companies to work closely with our civil society organizations and local government representatives to make sure investments work for the community, not just the company,” Bunye stressed.“Regardless of what some might say, the fact is that mining continues to be a key driver of our economy and an important sector that is creating jobs for the people and spurring exports,” he said.Since the Supreme Court’s 2005 ruling that opened up the mining sector to foreign investors, “some of the world’s biggest players in the mining sector, including Xstra, Anglo-American, and BHP Billiton, are active players in our mining sector.”Bunye cited how mining has transformed several towns in the Philippine countryside, particularly the mining mini-boom taking place in Surigao del Sur’s Carrascal town which local officials say has created close to 3,000 new jobs in the nickel mining operations in the province.“Officials estimate the number (of new jobs) to double within the next two years,” he added

APPLICATION FOR A PHILIPPINE MARRIAGE LICENSE

2008-04-20T20:44:00.000-07:00

Marriage License: a requirement for either a Civil or Church wedding to be held in the Philippines. The Application Form for a marriage license must be secured at the Local Civil Registrar from the city, town or municipality where either the bride or the groom habitually resides. The personal appearance of those getting married is required in applying for a marriage license. Each of the contracting parties shall file separately a sworn application for each license with the proper local civil registrar. Philippine law prescribes a ten-day waiting period from the filing of the Application to the issuance of the marriage license. The license is valid for 120 days from date of issuance and may be used anywhere in the Philippines. At the time the contracting parties appear to file their application for a Marriage License to the local civil registrar, he or she must also submit the following supporting documents:
Birth Certificate: Certified True Copy required of each the contracting parties with the respective registry number. This document is issued by the National Statistics Office (NSO). NOTE: NSO now provides a web service which accepts online application for copies of birth and marriage certificates. It is called the e-Census, a web facility aimed to provide Filipinos within and outside the country an alternative means in applying for copies of their civil registry documents. It also has a 24-7 hotline called the NSO Helpline Plus with telephone no. (632)737.1111. You could also reach them via email through: e-census.L.Hufana@mail.census.gov.ph Parents' Consent (for 18-21 years old) or Parent's Advice (for 21-25 years old): Under Philippine law, the legal age for marriage is 18. If the contracting parties are between the ages of 18 and 21, they must present written consent to the marriage from their father, mother or legal guardian. While any contracting party between the age of 22 and 25 must present written parental advice, i.e., a written indication that the parents are aware of the couple's intent to marry. Certificate of Attendance in a pre-marital counseling and family planning seminar conducted by the Division of Maternal and Child Health at the Municipal/City Hall in the same municipality or city where the contracting parties applied for the marriage license.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE MARRIAGE LICENSE REQUIREMENT

2008-04-20T20:43:00.000-07:00

The marriage license is one of the vital documents to couples-to-be. However, the 1987 Family Code waives this requirement when:
Either or both of the contracting parties are at the point of death. The marriage remains valid even if the ailing party subsequently survives.
If the residence of either party is located that there is no means of transportation to enable such party to appear personally before the local civil registrar
In the cases provided for in the two preceding articles, the solemnizing officer shall state in an affidavit executed before the local civil registrar or any other person legally authorized to administer oaths that the marriage was performed in articulo mortis (when the party at the point of death is unable to sign the marriage certificate); or that the residence of either party, specifying the barrio or barangay, is so located that there is no means of transportation to enable such party to appear personally before the local civil registrar and that the officer took the necessary steps to ascertain the ages and relationship of the contracting parties and the absence of legal impediment to the marriage.
The original of the affidavit required in the last preceding article, together with the legible copy of the marriage contract, shall be sent by the person solemnizing the marriage to the local civil registrar of the municipality where it was performed within the period of thirty days after the performance of the marriage.
Marriages among Muslims or among members of the ethnic cultural communities may be performed validly without the necessity of marriage license, provided they are solemnized in accordance with their customs, rites or practices.
No license shall be necessary for the marriage of a man and a woman who have lived together as husband and wife for at least five years and without any legal impediment to marry each other. The contracting parties shall state the foregoing facts in an affidavit before any person authorized by law to administer oaths. The solemnizing officer shall also state under oath that he ascertained the qualifications of the contracting parties are found no legal impediment to the marriage.

AUTHORIZED TO SOLEMNIZE MARRIAGES

2008-04-20T20:42:00.000-07:00

The 1987 Family Code of the Philippines' Chapter 1, Article 7 recognizes the authority of the following to solemnize marriages:
Any incumbent member of the judiciary is authorized to solemnize marriages within his court's jurisdiction (i.e. a Supreme Court justice could solemnize marriages anywhere in the Philippines while a Municipal Trial Court judge of Dagupan City cannot solemnize a marriage in Quezon City);
Any priest, rabbi, imam, or minister of any church or religious sect duly authorized by his church or religious sect. He should be registered with the civil registrar general and act within the limits of the written authority granted him by his church or religious sect. Likewise, at least one of the contracting parties should belong to the solemnizing officer's church or religious sect;
Any ship captain or airplane chief only in the case of marriages in articulo mortis between passengers or crew members, not only while the ship is at sea or the plane is in flight, but also during stopovers at ports of call;
Any military commander of a unit to which a chaplain is assigned. The commander could solemnize marriages in the absence of the chaplain or during military operation. Likewise, in the case of marriages in articulo mortis between persons within the zone of military operation, whether members of the armed forces or civilians;
Any consul-general, consul or vice-consul in the case of marriages between Filipino citizens abroad. The issuance of the marriage license and the duties of the local civil registrar and of the solemnizing officer with regard to the celebration of marriage shall be performed by the said consular official.

GENERAL CHURCH WEDDING REQUIREMENTS

2008-04-20T20:38:00.000-07:00

NOTE: other Churches/Parishes may require some other documents and/or seminars not specified below. To be sure, inquire at the parish office of the church you wish to be married in. Baptismal and Confirmation Certificates: these are for both the bride and the groom. These must be new copies and must have an annotation: "FOR MARRIAGE PURPOSES ONLY" and must have been secured not more than three (3) months before the date of marriage. FOR MIXED MARRIAGE (different religions or Disparitas Cultas): a dispensation must be secured from the Archdiocesan Chancery Office at the Arzobispado de Manila, 121 Arzobispo St., Intramuros, Manila (near Manila Cathedral). The forms will be provided at the Parish Office which will be released after the canonical interview with the Parish Priest or his assistant. These have to be submitted one week before the wedding. Marriage License: Can be secured from the city or municipality hall of either the bride or the groom. For those who are civilly married, a certified true photocopy of the Marriage Contract with the register number of the city or town where the marriage was performed must be submitted one week before the wedding date. Canonical Interview: This interview with the bride and the groom will be done one month before the wedding date and this will be done by the parish priest or his assistant. The schedule of the interview will be given upon the signing of the application form. Failure to report on the interview date or failure to notify the office of any change in the schedule will mean cancellation of the application and reservation. Pre-Marriage Seminar: Both the bride and the groom have to attend this. The schedule for the seminar will be given during the canonical interview or you may inquire at the parish office. Some churches will allow you to attend other pre-wedding seminars such as the Catholic Engaged Encounter or Discovery Weekend. (Note: if you have already attended either one of these, inquire at the parish office if they recognize these weekend seminars in lieu of the parish's seminar.) Permission: Permit from the parish of the bride must be secured and presented to the parish office of the chosen ceremony venue (form will be provided for by the parish office of your selected church.) Wedding Banns: These will be provided during the canonical interview and have to be immediately brought to the respective parishes of the bride and the groom for posting. These have to be returned to the office after three Sundays. (Note: the respective parishes may ask some requirements for the posting of the banns [i.e. a picture each from the bride and the groom]) List of names and addresses of principal sponsors (Ninongs & Ninangs): This has to be submitted to the parish office one week before the wedding date. Church policy requires at least a pair of sponsors and, ideally, a maximum of six sponsors. FOR WIDOW OR WIDOWER: A copy of the death certificate of the former spouse must be presented to the parish office. FOR RENEWAL OF VOWS: remember to bring a copy of the Catholic Marriage Contract.

LOCAL ADOPTION /How to Adopt a Child:

2008-04-20T20:31:00.000-07:00

Adoption is defined as a socio-legal process of providing a permanent family to a child whose parents have voluntarily or involuntarily relinquished parental authority over the child. Adoption is for children who cannot be reared by their biological parents and who need and can benefit from new and permanent family ties. Adoption provides the same mutual rights and obligations that exist between children and their biological parents. It comprises of social work and other professional services that are required in the placement of children in adoptive families.Children whose parents are either absent or unable to function as parents require the protection of the State. Protection of the child requires sufficient study to make certain that the placement is suitable and present no hazard to the child's growth and development. The State through the Department of Social Welfare and Development has a concern in every adoption including those by stepparents and relatives.
Pre-Adoption Services
Children Eligible for Adoption
Qualifications of Adoptive Parents
Requirements/Supporting Documents
Process/Procedure There are three types of adoption in the Philippines:1. Agency adoptions are those in which a licensed adoption agency finds and develops adoptive families for children who are voluntarily or involuntarily committed. The adoptive families go through the process from application to finalization of the child's adoption under the auspices of the Department of Social Welfare and Development or a licensed child-placing agency like the Kaisahang Buhay Foundation. Through this type of adoption, the legal rights of the child, the parents who gave birth to the child and the parents who will adopt the child, are all equally protected.2. Family or relative adoptions are those where the biological parents make a direct placement of the child to a relative or a member of their extended family with whom they relinquish their child.3. Private or independent adoptions could either be a direct placement to a family known by the child's biological parents or through the use of an intermediary or a go-between. In an intermediary placement, an individual knows of parents who want to have their child adopted and arranges such placement to a family or someone who wants to adopt. These intermediaries are generally well-meaning and have good intentions. However, one must be wary of "black market" placements which involve an intermediary who brings together a person who has a child and individuals who want to adopt, for the sole purpose of making a profit. This practice does not consider the best interests of the child nor the legal rights of biological parents and adoptive parents.The following are components of adoption:
Recruitment of potential adoptive families who may provide a home to a child;
Development of adoptive applicants as parents to a particular child in need of a home;
Selection of a family who can best contribute to the total development of a particular child;
Preparation of the child and family prior to placement to insure acceptance and readiness for the new relationship;
Supervision of trial custody for at least six months to facilitate the child's adjustment in the family prior to the completion of adoption;
Preparation for removal of the child from the adoptive home if the placement disrupts while alternative plans are being worked out;
Finalization of adoption and termination of service with issuance of the final decree of adoption and amended birth certificate;
Organization of groups of adoptive parents as part of support system; and
Post-legal adoption counselling when adoptive family and adoptee need further counselling related to information about adoptee's background and search for his/her biological parents. Effects of Adoption
Sever all legal ties between the biological parent(s) and the adoptee, except when the biological parent is the spouse of the adopter;
Deem the adoptee as a legitimate child of the adopter;
Give adopter and adoptee reciprocal rights and obligations arising from the relationship of parent and child, including but not limited to;
The right of the adopter to choose the name the child is to be known; and
The right of the adopter and adoptee to be legal and compulsory heirs of each other.

About King County and its government

2008-04-17T23:52:00.000-07:00

Located on Puget Sound in Washington State, and covering 2,134 square miles, King County is nearly twice as large as the average county in the United States. With more than 1.8 million people, it also ranks as the 13th most populous county in the nation.
King County government services
Regional services.King County provides regional services to all residents of the county, including people who live in cities. These include courts and related legal services, public health services, the county jail, records and elections, property tax appraisals and regional parks and facilities, including the King County International Airport (Boeing Field). With the voter-approved merger of Metro and King County, county government has also assumed the responsibility for public transit and sewage disposal.
Subregional services.King County provides subregional services in many suburban cities, such as animal control.
Local services.In unincorporated communities, King County provides the services listed above and many local services, including land-use regulation, building permits, police protection, roads and local parks. Other local services in unincorporated communities are provided by fire, water, library and hospital districts which operate independently of county government.
The Metropolitan King County Council is the legislative branch of county government. It adopts laws, sets policies and holds final approval over the budget. Councilmembers represent geographic districts. Every county citizen, including city residents, has an opportunity to vote for a representative on the County Council.
The King County Executive is the elected executive officer of county government. Every citizen of the county has an opportunity to vote for the Executive, who is elected on a countywide basis.

clean green

2008-04-17T23:48:00.000-07:00

Cleaner, greener, meaner
As the health and environmental impacts of conventional cleaning products become more thoroughly understood, more and more brands of healthy, green, and effective cleaning products have started hitting the market and competing for that coveted place of honor under your sink. Many of these products are non-toxic, biodegradable, and made from renewable resources (not petroleum). But if designer labels aren’t for you, home-mixed cleaners can get the job done and then some. Vinegar and baking soda can be used to clean almost anything. Mix in a little warm water with either of these and you’ve got yourself an all-purpose cleaner.
2. Healthy airflow
It is not uncommon for the air inside a home or office to be more toxic than the air outside. This is because of the presence of toxic materials and substances and the fact that homes and buildings are better insulated than ever before (which is a good thing from an energy standpoint). Keeping windows open as often as possible allows fresh air in and keeps toxins flowing out. This is especially important when cleaning your home.
3. Are we breeding supergerms?
The antibacterial and antimicrobial ‘cleaners’ that many people think are necessary, especially during cold season, don’t clean hands better than soap and water, and also add to the risk of breeding “super germs,” bacteria that survive the chemical onslaught and have resistant offspring. The FDA has found that antibacterial soaps and hand cleansers do not work better than regular soap and water, and should be avoided.
4. Help your home smell soda-licious
Baking soda not only removes those strange smells coming from your fridge, it’s also a great odor-eliminator for your carpet. Just sprinkle on a little baking soda to soak up some of those odors and then vacuum it up.
5. Clean peace
Skip the store-bought air fresheners and instead try boiling cinnamon, cloves, or any other herbs you have a fondness for. Fresh chocolate chip cookies also have been known to create a friendly aroma. Also, plants may not make your house smell different but are good for filtering interior air—pretty much any broad green leaf plant will do. Peace Lilies are a favorite choice.
6. The toxic toss
When replacing your cleaning products, don’t just throw the old ones in the trash. If they’re too toxic for your home, they won’t be good for the drain or the landfill either. Many communities hold toxics & electronics recycling days and will take all of these off your hands. Throwing chemicals in the trash or down the drain means they might end up back in your water supply and come back to haunt you (see How to Green Your Water for more).
7. Drycleaners
Conventional drycleaners are the largest users of the industrial solvent called Perchloroethylene, or perc, which is toxic to humans and also creates smog. The two most common green drycleaning methods are carbon dioxide cleaning and Green Earth. Seek out cleaners that use green methods. If you do take clothes to conventional cleaners, be sure to air them outside before wearing them or putting them in the closet.
8. Green house cleaning service
For people don’t have the time to clean their own homes, fortunately there are an increasing number of green cleaning services out there to help get things spic and span. If you can’t find one in your area (or their rates are outlandish), call around until you find a service willing to use the products and methods you specify.
9. Leave the toxins at the door
Imagine what’s on your shoes at the end of the day. Bringing that oil, antifreeze, animal waste, particulate pollution, pollen, and who knows what else into the house is not good news, especially for kids and other critters that spend time on floor level. Keep the sidewalk out of your home with a good doormat or a shoeless house policy. Many green buildings now include entryway track-off systems as a means of maintaining a healthy interior environment. Less dirt also means less sweeping, mopping, and vacuuming, which means less work, water, energy, and fewer chemicals.
10. Clean design
Designing houses and other building with cleanability in mind can create spaces that are cleaner, healthier, and require fewer substances to maintain. In larger buildings, good cleanability can also be a big money-saver as cleaning costs can often add up to as much as half of a building’s total energy costs.Back To Top Λ
1. DIY
Create your own cleaning solutions made from products you have around the house. These save money and also keep toxic chemicals out of your house. See below for suggestions on homebrewed cleaners.
2. Taking it to the cleaners
Talk to your boss/co-workers/custodial team about switching cleaning products to green cleaning products. The people most at risk from the toxic effects of cleaning chemicals are custodial workers.
3. Underneath it all
Consider replacing your carpets with wood, linoleum or other non-carpet flooring. This will reduce the toxic cleaners needed for rugs as vinegar and water works great for cleaning non-carpet floors. This can also save energy, because you won’t need to run that vacuum.
4. Clean carpets
When getting carpets steam cleaned, look for companies that use only water or natural solvents.
5. Non-disposable
Paper towels and other disposable, single-use cleaning things can be replaced with reusable clothes and mircrofiber wipes. Clean them in the dishwasher and whiten them with hydrogen peroxide when they need it. Also, when it comes to buying sponges, natural ones are biodegradable and can break down or be composted when their useful life is through. But make certain that the natural sponges you buy come from a "sponge farm" and not from a natural ecosystem.
Back To Top Λ
1. 17,000: the number of petrochemicals available for home use, only 30% of which have been tested for exposure to human health and the environment.
2. 63: the number of synthetic chemical products found in the average American home, translating to roughly 10 gallons of harmful chemicals.
3. 100: the number of times higher that indoor air pollution levels can be above outdoor air pollution levels, according to US EPA estimates.
4. 275: the number of active ingredients in antimicrobials that the EPA classifies as pesticides because they are designed to kill microbes.
5. 5 billion: the number of pounds of chemicals that the institutional cleaning industry uses each year.
6. 23: the average gallons in chemicals (87 liters) that a janitor uses each year, 25% of which are hazardous. Back To Top Λ

Here is a sampling of relevant topics and products TreeHugger has covered. Also take a dip into the TH archives for more on almost any topic you can think of. If the answer you are looking for is glaringly absent, feel free to drop a TreeHugger writer an email and raise the issue.
A TreeHugger survey polls the electorate on their use of green cleaning products.
A look at two specialty cleaning services that employ eco-friendly methods.
TreeHugger roots into the question, what do I do about clogged drains? and offers a more natural alternative to busting out the Drain-O.
Pots, pans, plastic: all are possible causes of Toxic Shock Syndrome. This Canadian report looks at over 4,000 common chemicals and their links to your health.
Good advise on taking care of your floor the way grandma used to.
Conventional dry cleaning is anything but green. Carbon dioxide and Green Earth are two friendly alternatives that get the job done.
TreeHuggers give their thoughts on Seveth Generation’s book, Naturally Clean, by CEO Jeffrey Hollender.
TreeHugger interviews Gregor Barnum, Corporate Consciousness director for Seventh Generation.
In the battle between hand washing and machine washing the dishes, who really wins?
Some products for keeping the pool naturally clean.
A how-to guide for the laundry room.
Kyeann Sayer shares some tips on how to sweat without staining.
Zeolite is a natural mineral that absorbs odors and moisture.
Some valuable technique on how to use tea tree oil around the home. http://www.treehugger.com/files/2005/12/tea_tree_oil_th.php
Most of us share our home with dangerous substances—here is a review of some of the pertinent knowledge and how to steer clear.
Books we’ve covered:
Better Basics for the Home: Simple Solutions for Less Toxic Living
Clean Sweep: The Ultimate Guide to Decluttering, Detoxing and Destressing Your Home
Green Clean: The Environmentally Sound Guide to Cleaning Your Home
Naturally Clean: The Seventh Generation Guide to Safe & Healthy Non-toxic Cleaning
Back To Top Λ

The Union of Concerned Scientists has a thorough list of definitions for common household cleaning products, including an explanation of what makes them harmful and alternative options.
This National Institute of Health webpage allows for searches on a variety of products, including cleaning products and their health and toxicity ratings. The database includes a multitude of companies but is limited to information provided by company reports.
Under the LEED certification system, a building can receive as many as fourteen points for green cleaning products and cleanability.
Grist offers tips on how to get your cleaning crew at work to switch to safer products.
GreenBiz.com provides in-depth reports and articles on the business breakdown of a green approach to cleaning.
The Children’s Health Environmental Coalition offers great advise on how to make your own cleaners that can handle just about any corner of the home and lays out the five products needed to clean just about anything.
What’s the difference between a sanitizer, disinfectant, and a sterilizer? The US Environmental Protection Agency Antimicrobial Pesticide Product page will clear that up for you. Their Green Cleaning Products page also lays out the basics of why cleaning chemicals can be so harmful.
CleanerSolutions Database is a free online tool for evaluating surface-cleaning products.
The Center for a New American Dream offers advice on how to change the cleaning products used by your custodial staff as well as the statistics to back it up, and they also offer reports from cities that have greened their cleaning practices.
Environmental Choice is an international organization that certifies green cleaning products and other home and office products.
The Ashkin Group advises cleaning services on greening their cleaning.
Green Seal is another standardization organization that is certifies cleaning products among other things.
Green Earth is one of the most widely available ecologically preferable drycleaning systems.
Seventh Generation’s Making a Difference Newsletter provides regular doses of sound advise.
Back To Top Λ

Here’s a place to get started sourcing environmentally-friendly cleaning products. We have not personally tested all of these, so we’re eager to hear your experiences.
Cleaning Products
B_E_E Cleaning Products
Ecover
Ecoconcepts
Clean and Green is a collaboration between British chef Antony Worrall Thompson and the WWF
No Wet waterless carwash system
At Home cleaning products by Fruits of Passion
Swheat Scoop is a biodegradable kitty litter
E-Cloth microfiber cleaning towels and mops
Method makes a stylish line of cleaning products as well as microfiber towels specialized for different surfaces.
Actor Ed Begley has an eco-friendly cleaning product worthy of the prestigious Cradle to Cradle seal of approval.
Designer Ole Jensen has crafted a dustpan and brush with nature and minimalism in mind
For cleaning dishes in a natural way, these Japanese scrubbers play rough.
Commercial/Industrial
Advanced Vapor Technologies
The Clean Environment Company
EnvirOx

The 10 Stewardship Principles, by Steve Ashkin

2008-04-17T23:46:00.000-07:00

Commit to people, education, and communications. Buildings do not become dirty or become cleaned by themselves. These activities are dependent on people! A successful “Green” janitorial program should involve both the cleaning personnel and building occupants. Get people involved; keep them involved by celebrating and communicating successes. Let them know the values/benefits that are in it for them.
First, clean to protect health and the environment. Second, clean for appearance. It is not what is seen that is the real area of concern. Even clean appearing buildings can be extremely unhealthy. Thus, focus on cleaning for health and the environment, and in most cases, the appearance will be addressed at the same time.
Clean and maintain the building as a whole, not as separate components. Cleaning and maintenance, in one area of a building, can have a major impact on other areas. For example, the fumes from stripping and recoating a floor in one area can contaminate adjacent areas or even the entire building via the HVAC system. Appropriate actions must take place to ensure the health and safety throughout the entire building.
Scheduled routine maintenance. Scheduled maintenance that is frequent and thorough is the most efficient and effective method for building maintenance. Concise plans and records are a must!
Plan for accidents. Specific procedures need to be developed to address accidents. Plans should address weather related problems, as well as common spills (e.g., coffee), water leaks, and/or smoke or air contamination by a noxious chemical reaction.
Minimize human exposure to harmful contaminants and cleaning residues. Workers should always use the appropriate personal protective equipment. Areas where work is taking place should have adequate ventilation. Work schedules should be established to minimize exposure to building occupants, and the products used should be the most benign to accomplish the task.
Minimize chemical, particle, and moisture residue when cleaning. The products that are used for building maintenance, due to their ability to quickly and efficiently remove oils, soils, living organisms, etc., can also contribute to a building's problem if used incorrectly.
Ensure worker and building occupant safety at all times.
Minimize the amount of pollutants entering the building, while maximizing the amount of pollutants extracted. It is significantly more effective, in terms of both time and money, to keep contaminants out of the building, then to try to remove them once they have entered.
Dispose of cleaning waste in environmentally safe ways.In summary, the goal of Green Cleaning is to protect the health of building occupants, visitors, and cleaning personnel, as well as reducing polluting effects on our air and water. Dr. Berry defines cleaning as, “the process of locating, identifying, containing, and properly removing and disposing of unwanted substance from an environment”. We believe this to mean that Cleaning should be organized, scheduled, and focused on achieving specific objectives primarily those related to protecting health and valuable property.

Green Cleaning

2008-04-17T23:31:00.000-07:00

As documented in an Arizona Republic article dated June 2, 2007, studies have found that air inside a building can be two to five times as polluted as the air outdoors. "If you're going to be indoors 90 percent of the time, then you should pay attention to what's going on indoors," said Barbara Spark, indoor air program coordinator for EPA's Western region.
Green cleaning and environmental stewardship are not just buzzwords from the 1960s. The choices we make in cleaning products, equipment, systems and procedures affect our economy and our very lives. As evident, increases in childhood asthma, falling test scores, student absenteeism, employee sick time, and lower productivity all have some basis in poor indoor environmental quality.
Green Cleaning is not about simply replacing your current product with a milder cleaner. Green cleaning is a process that reduces the negative impact on human health and the environment when compared to traditional products and programs. It minimizes VOC emissions, controls allergens from dyes and fragrances making indoor environments more healthful and pleasant. Product selection is important, however, a regularly scheduled Green cleaning and maintenance program is of equal importance. A properly designed and implemented plan will have a positive impact on the cleanliness of your facility, the health of its occupants and your ROI.
Contact Total Quality Cleaning Systems today for a free Green Cleaning audit of your building. We would be more than happy to examine your entire process of cleaning, identify the areas that can be improved, develop a plan and the procedures to implement the plan, execute the plan and measure the results.
The USGBC (United States Green Building Council) has pioneered the framework and standard for “Green buildings”. Total Quality Cleaning Systems, subscribes to that framework.

Caribbean Vacations

2008-04-17T23:27:00.000-07:00

Caribbean Vacations

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Caribbean vacations are hugely popular with families, not only during high season --January to April-- but year-round. All-inclusive resorts are de rigeur for many families, and dominate on some islands; but there are other choices, too. Find top resorts for families, intro to different islands, and more.
Photo © Teresa Plowright
3. Mexico

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Mexico is another popular place for all-inclusive beach resorts. Popular areas include Cancun, on the Caribbean sea; the Riviera Maya south of Cancun (- a terrific area for outings, with Mayan ruins, coral reef, unique eco-theme park, caves, and more); and Los Cabos, on the west side of Mexico.
* photo © Teresa Plowright
4. Hawaii

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Hawaii remains a destination of legendary beauty and unique culture. Families won't find the all-inclusives of the Caribbean, but will find many resorts that welcome families with kids' programs and special activities. Many are deluxe, but value-priced options can be found as well.
* photo © Teresa Plowright
5. Family vacation Ideas : Florida

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Orlando, of course, is the family vacation mecca of the universe: a triumph, considering it's an inland town in a state lined with beaches (- though artificial beaches and even surfing can be found in the big "O".) Meanwhile, Florida has many family-friendly beach zones: Amelia Island, the Space Coast, Clearwater Beach... and stand-out resorts such as Disney's Vero Beach on the Treasure Coast, and Sandestin in the northwest.
* photo © Teresa Plowright
6. Southeast US

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Though overshadowed by uber-destination Florida, the Southeast US has vacation hotspots (such as Myrtle Beach SC), renowned beach resort areas such as Hilton Head SC, legendary resorts such as Sea Island GA, and much more. See also a history+fun tour in the South with focus on Memphis and Atlanta.
Photo courtesy of Sea Island Resorts.
7. Midwest US

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Wisconsin is a leader in a big family travel trend: the small town of Wisconsin Dells is tops for resorts with indoor (and outdoor) waterparks. Two leading players -- Great Wolf Lodge and the Kalahari-- have been colonizing other locations, too. Sandusky OH is now another "node" for waterpark resorts -- adding winter fun to a city that's a hotspot in summer due to Cedar Point Amusement Park (aka roller coaster paradise.)
8. Rocky Mountain States

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Find ideas for Colorado, Idaho, Utah, Montana, and Wyoming. (For other Rocky Mountain states, AZ, NM, NV, see "Southwest US".) Skiing, of course, is a top draw especially in Colorado and Utah. Other vacation ideas include: dude ranches, whitewater rafting, Yellowstone National Park, summer fun at ski resorts (such as human mazes, climbing walls, and 3000-foot Alpine Slide), and a top spot for the Great Outdoors, the YMCA of the Rockies, in CO.
9. Southwest US

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Big tourist draws in Arizona include the Grand Canyon, Lake Havasu (with the original London Bridge), and Lake Mead, for houseboating; AZ is good for dude ranches, too. New Mexico, meanwhile, has a unique mix of Native American, hispanic, and anglo cultures: take an "edu-cation" (i.e. vacation with some education as part of the fun.) See also, family resorts such as: a resort near Phoenix with its own waterpark; 4000 acre resort, near Austin TX; a Hyatt Regency on native land that highlights Native American culture in kids activities (plus horse-riding, golf, etc.).
* photo © Teresa Plowright
10. Family Vacations: California

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California has some well-known draws for families, such as Disneyland, and the San Diego zoo; Legoland California is another great spot, a theme park designed for 2 to 12-year-olds.
photo courtesy of Legoland

Family Vacation News: Windjammer Cruises - Out of Biz?

2008-04-17T23:25:00.000-07:00

Windjammer Cruises -- with sailings on elegant tall-masted ships, the antithesis of the big cruise line behemoths-- has been regularly offering summer family programs in the Caribbean, with "Junior Jammers" and "Teen Jammers" activities. Alas, that fantasy family vacation has faded out, according to reports at Cruisemates.com that Windjammer Cruises are officialy out of business. Yet the Windjammer Cruises website shows no signs of demise. So presumably the story is still unfolding... hopefully someone will continue to run cruises on such beautiful ships.
Sunday April 6, 2008 permalink comments (0)
All-Inclusives for Family of Five
Families with three kids are often made to feel like "fifth wheel" outsiders who can't fit into regular rooms designed for four. Many hotels and resorts offer adjoining rooms as a solution, but that's an expensive option and also best suited for families with older kids.
So it's welcome news that popular holiday packager Apple Vacations has a set of promotions for "families of five", at well-known all-inclusive resorts in Mexico and the DR. Even nicer, pricing is clearly indicated for adults and for kids.
check out Apple's Family of Five packages
more suggestions for Families of Five more about all-inclusive resorts
Photo of Hotel Marina El Cid Riviera Maya © Teresa Plowright
Friday April 4, 2008 permalink comments (0)
Family Vacation News: More Nick Hotels Coming
The original Nick Hotel in Orlando is a huge hit with families, and no wonder: with two on-site waterparks, and games and entertainment by Nickelodeon.
Now get ready for up to twenty more Nick Hotels around the world, created as a partnership between the Nickelodeon tv channel and the giant hotel company, Marriott International.
The first "Nickelodeon Resort by Marriott" will open in San Diego in 2010. Read more.
Wednesday April 2, 2008 permalink comments (0)
Hawaii News & Deal
I've long been interested in the Molokai Ranch and Lodge, on the less-known island of Molokai: the property has a staggering 64,000 acres - over 35% of the area of the island-- including white-sand beach; and lodging includes the intriguing option of "tentalows", canvas bungalows on wood platforms, with beds, private bath, and solar-powered lights.
The Molokai Ranch and Lodge is the major-- if not the sole-- player on the island for tourism, so I was surprised to read this week that this unique property is closing down. It's a tale of disputes over what new development will be allowed on the property-- our Guide for Hawaii for Visitors has details.
Also in Hawaii -- and on a much lighter note-- some spring promotions are on offer at the Hanalei Colony Resort, on Kauai's North Shore. Kauai's a verdant island and the North Shore is a beautiful place to stay; this laid-back resort has super-large suites, and excellent dining and spa on-site. Check out this and other family travel deals.
more about Hanalei Colony Resort Top Things to Do on Kauai for Families
Note: the items on this page change often! See lots more recent blog entries. You can also add a blog feed to your web-site.
Tuesday April 1, 2008 permalink comments (0)
Ski Season Extended...
Spring skiers can enjoy the slopes for an extra week at family-run, family-friendly Okemo ski resort, thanks to abundant snow: closing date has been moved to April 20 2008. There's some good deals on the slopes in these last weeks, too.
Okemo -- near the small town of Ludlow, Vermont -- has five mountain areas, free skiing and riding for kids six and under, free beginner lifts.
more about Okemo more ski resorts, by region
Monday March 31, 2008 permalink comments (0)
Walt Disney World Vacations
If you're planning your summer vacation, your thoughts may be turning to Orlando and Walt Disney World. Where to stay, is one big question. Orlando has so many choices, from luxury resorts that welcome kids, to NickHotel (with onsite water parks, and Nickelodeon theme), to budget-minded family-friendly hotels.
But there are many who will only stay "in the World". The Disney World resorts -- Luxury, Moderate, and Value-- all meet a high standard, and have the Disney ambiance; and all -- even Fort Wilderness Resort and Campground-- confer a great set of perks.
Free shuttle from the airport, Extra Magic Hours in the theme parks...
Read about Perks of Staying at a Disney World Resort
see other Orlando Resort Top Choices

New Value-priced Caribbean All-inclusive Brand

2008-04-17T23:15:00.000-07:00

References

2008-04-17T23:08:00.000-07:00

Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, and Walter P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th edition. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.
Gilbert SF (2000). Developmental Biology, 6th edition, Sinauer Associates, Inc.. ISBN 0-87893-243-7.

Notes
^ Alberts et al. (2002), V. 20. The Benefits of Sex
^ Alberts et al. (2002), V. 20. Meiosis
^ Gilbert (2000), 1.2. Multicellularity: The Evolution of Differentiation
^ Alberts et al. (2002), V. 21. Caenorhabditis Elegans: Development from the Perspective of the Individual Cell
^ Alberts et al. (2002), 3. Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles
^ Alberts et al. (2002), V.20. Sperm
^ Alberts et al. (2002), V.20. Eggs
^ Alberts et al. (2002), V.20. Fertilization
^ Ritchison G. Avian Reproduction. Eastern Kentucky University. Retrieved on 2008-04-03.
^ Gilbert (2000), 4.20. Gamete Production in Angiosperms
^ Nick Lane (2005). Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press, 236-237. ISBN 0192804812.
^ Matthew P Scott, Paul Matsudaira, Harvey Lodish, James Darnell, Lawrence Zipursky, Chris A Kaiser, Arnold Berk, Monty Krieger (2000). Molecular Cell Biology, Fourth Edition, WH Freeman and Co. 14.1. Cell-Type Specification and Mating-Type Conversion in Yeast
^ Book Review for Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth. Jupiter Scientific. Retrieved on 2008-04-07.
^ Amanda Schaffer, Pas de Deux: Why Are There Only Two Sexes?, Slate updated 27 September, 2007.
^ Laurence D. Hurst, 'Why are There Only Two Sexes?', Proceedings: Biological Sciences 263 (1996): 415-422
^ ES Haag, 'Why two sexes? Sex determination in multicellular organisms and protistan mating types', Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 18 (2007): 348-9.
^ a b Dellaporta SL, Calderon-Urrea A (1993). "Sex Determination in Flowering Plants". The Plant Cell 5: 1241-1251.
^ Smith CA, Katza M, Sinclair AH (2003). "DMRT1 Is Upregulated in the Gonads During Female-to-Male Sex Reversal in ZW Chicken Embryos". Biology of Reproduction 68: 560-570.
^ Evolution of the Y Chromosome. Annenberg Media. Retrieved on 2008-04-01.
^ Yoshimura A (2005). "Karyotypes of two American field crickets: Gryllus rubens and Gryllus sp. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)". Entomological Science 8 (3): 219-222.
^ Riddle DL, Blumenthal T, Meyer BJ, Priess JR (1997). C. Elegans II. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 0-87969-532-3. 9.II. Sexual Dimorphism
^ Charlesworth B (2003). "Sex Determination in the Honeybee". Cell 114 (4): 397-398.
^ Tanurdzic M and Banks JA (2004). "Sex-Determining Mechanisms in Land Plants". The Plant Cell 16: S61-S71.
^ Darwin C (1871). The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex. Murray, London.
^ Stuart-Smith J, Swain R, Stuart-Smith R, Wapstra E (2007). "Is fecundity the ultimate cause of female-biased size dimorphism in a dragon lizard?". Journal of Zoology 273 (3): 266-272.
^ Zahavi, A. and Zahavi, A. (1997) The handicap principle: a missing piece of Darwin's puzzle. Oxford University Press. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-510035-2

External links and further reading
Find more about Sex on Wikipedia's sister projects:

Dictionary definitions

Textbooks

Quotations

Source texts

Images and media

News stories

Learning resources
Francoeur, Robert T. (ed.), The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality [full text]
Janssen, D. F., Growing Up Sexually. Volume I. World Reference Atlas [full text]
Francoeur, Robert T. and Rayond J. Noonan, (eds.) "Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality". Continuum, August 2003, ISBN 0-8264-1488-5
Human Sexual Differentiation by P. C. Sizonenko
New Scientist article on Sex chromosomes in the platypus
Human Sexuality Info by University of California Santa Barbara
Maynard-Smith, J. The Evolution of Sex. Cambridge University Press, 1978.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex"

Sexual dimorphism

2008-04-17T23:07:00.000-07:00

Main article: sexual dimorphism
Many animals have differences between the male and female sexes in size and appearance, a phenomenon called sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphisms are often associated with sexual selection - the competition between individuals of one sex to mate with the opposite sex.[24] Antlers in male deer, for example, are used in combat between males to win reproductive access to female deer. In many cases the male of a species is larger in size; in mammals species with high sexual size dimorphism tend to have highly polygynous mating systems—presumably due to selection for success in competition with other males.
Other animals, including most insects and many fish, have larger females. This may be associated with the cost of producing egg cells, which requires more nutrition than producing sperm—larger females are able to produce more eggs.[25] Occasionally this dimorphism is extreme, with males reduced to living as parasites dependent on the female.
In birds, males often have a more colorful appearance and may have features (like the long tail of male peacocks) that would seem to put the organism at a disadvantage (eg. bright colors would seem to make a bird more visible to predators). One proposed explanation for this is the handicap principle.[26] This hypothesis says that, by demonstrating he can survive with such handicaps, the male is advertising his genetic fitness to females—traits that will benefit daughters as well, who will not be encumbered with such handicaps.
Sex differences in humans include a larger size and more body hair in men; women have breasts, wider hips, and a higher body fat percentage.

Nongenetic

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For many species sex is not determined by inherited traits, but instead by environmental factors experienced during development or later in life. Many reptiles have temperature-dependent sex determination: the temperature embryos experience during their development determines the sex of the organism. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower incubation temperatures than females; this difference in critical temperatures can be as little as 1-2°C.
Many fish change sex over the course of their lifespan, a phenomenon called sequential hermaphroditism. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female. In many wrasses the opposite is true—most fish are initially female and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphrodites may produce both types of gametes over the course of their lifetime, but at any given point they are either female or male.
In some ferns the default sex is hermaphrodite, but ferns which grow in soil that has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by residual hormones to instead develop as male.[23]

Genetic

2008-04-17T23:06:00.001-07:00

In genetic sex determination systems, an organism's sex is determined by the genome it inherits. Genetic sex determines usually depends on asymmetrically inherited sex chromosomes which carry genetic features that influence development; sex may be determined either by the presence of a sex chromosome or by how many the organism has. Genetic sex determination, because it is determined by chromosome assortment, usually results in a 1:1 ratio of male and female offspring.
Humans and other mammals have an XY sex determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development. The default sex, in the absence of a Y chromosome, is female. Thus, XX mammals are female and XY are male. XY sex determination is found in other organisms, including the common fruit fly and some plants.[17] In some cases, including in the fruit fly, it is the number of X chromosomes that determines sex rather than the presence of a Y chromosome.
In birds, which have a ZW sex-determination system, the opposite is true: the W chromosome carries factors responsible for female development, and default development is male.[18] In this case ZZ individuals are male and ZW are female. The majority of butterflies and moths also have a ZW sex-determination system. In both XY and ZW sex determination systems the sex chromosome carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller, carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the development of a given sex.[19]
Many insects use a sex determination system based on the number of sex chromosomes. This is called XX/XO sex determination—the O indicates the absence of the sex chromosome. All other chromosomes in these organisms are diploid, but organisms may inherit one or two X chromosomes. In field crickets, for example, insects with a single X chromosome develop as male, while those with two develop as female.[20] In the nematode C. elegans most worms are self-fertilizing XX hermaphrodites, but occasionally abnormalities in chromosome inheritance regularly give rise to individuals with only one X chromosome—these XO individuals are fertile males (and half their offspring are male).[21]
Other insects, including honey bees and ants, use a haplodiploid sex-determination system.[22] In this case diploid individuals are generally female, and haploid individuals (which develop from unfertilized eggs) are male. This sex-determination system results in highly biased sex ratios, as the sex of offspring is determined by fertilization rather than the assortment of chromosomes during meiosis

Sex determination

2008-04-17T23:05:00.000-07:00

Main article: sex determination
The most basic sexual system is one in which all organisms are hermaphrodites, producing both male and female gametes—this is true of some animals (eg. snails) and the majority of flowering plants.[17] In many cases, however, specialization of sex has evolved such that some organisms produce only male or only female gametes. The biological cause for an organism developing into one sex or the other is called sex determination.
In the majority of species with sex specialization organisms are either male (producing only male gametes) or female (producing only female gametes). A few exceptions exist—for example, in the roundworm C. elegans the two sexes are hermaphrodite and male (a system called androdioecy).
Sometimes an organism's development is intermediate between male and female, a condition called intersex. Sometimes intersex individuals are called "hermaphrodite" but, unlike biological hermaphrodites, intersex individuals are unusual cases and are not typically fertile in both male and female aspects.

Evolution

2008-04-17T23:03:00.000-07:00

Main article: Evolution of sex
Sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago, evolved within ancestral single-celled eukaryotes.[13] The reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason it has survived to the present are still matters of debate. Some of the many plausible theories include: that sex creates variation among offspring, sex helps in the spread of advantageous traits, and that sex helps in the removal of disadvantageous traits.
Sexual reproduction is a process specific to eukaryotes, organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and mitochondria. In addition to animals, plants, and fungi, other eukaryotes (eg. the malaria parasite) also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria; while not the same as sexual reproduction, this also results in the mixture of genetic traits.
What is considered defining of sexual reproduction is the difference between the gametes and the binary nature of fertilization. Multiplicity of gamete types within a species would still be considered a form of sexual reproduction. However, as far as we know no third gamete has appeared in multicellular animals.[14][15][16]

Main article: Evolution of sex
Sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago, evolved within ancestral single-celled eukaryotes.[13] The reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason it has survived to the present are still matters of debate. Some of the many plausible theories include: that sex creates variation among offspring, sex helps in the spread of advantageous traits, and that sex helps in the removal of disadvantageous traits.
Sexual reproduction is a process specific to eukaryotes, organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and mitochondria. In addition to animals, plants, and fungi, other eukaryotes (eg. the malaria parasite) also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria; while not the same as sexual reproduction, this also results in the mixture of genetic traits.
What is considered defining of sexual reproduction is the difference between the gametes and the binary nature of fertilization. Multiplicity of gamete types within a species would still be considered a form of sexual reproduction. However, as far as we know no third gamete has appeared in multicellular animals.[14][15][16]
Sex helps the spread of advantageous traits through recombination. The diagrams compare evolution of allele frequency in a sexual population (a) and an asexual population (b). The verticle axis shows frequency and the horizontal axis shows time. The alleles a/A and b/B occur at random. The advantageous combination AB arises rapidly with recombination (a), but must arise independently in (b).

Evolution
Main article: Evolution of sex
Sexual reproduction first appeared about a billion years ago, evolved within ancestral single-celled eukaryotes.[13] The reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason it has survived to the present are still matters of debate. Some of the many plausible theories include: that sex creates variation among offspring, sex helps in the spread of advantageous traits, and that sex helps in the removal of disadvantageous traits.
Sexual reproduction is a process specific to eukaryotes, organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and mitochondria. In addition to animals, plants, and fungi, other eukaryotes (eg. the malaria parasite) also engage in sexual reproduction. Some bacteria use conjugation to transfer genetic material between bacteria; while not the same as sexual reproduction, this also results in the mixture of genetic traits.
What is considered defining of sexual reproduction is the difference between the gametes and the binary nature of fertilization. Multiplicity of gamete types within a species would still be considered a form of sexual reproduction. However, as far as we know no third gamete has appeared in multicellular animals.[14][15][16]

Fungi

2008-04-17T23:02:00.000-07:00

Main article: Mating in fungi
Most fungi reproduce sexually, having both a haploid and diploid stage in their life cycles. These fungi are typically isogamous, lacking male and female specialization: haploid fungi grow into contact with each other and then fuse their cells. In some of these cases the fusion is asymmetric, and the cell which donates only a nucleus (and not accompanying cellular material) could arguably be considered "male".[11]
Some fungi, including baker's yeast, have mating types that create a duality similar to male and female roles. Yeast with the same mating type will not fuse with each other to form diploid cells, only with yeast carrying the other mating type.[12]
Fungi produce mushrooms as part of their sexual reproduction. Within the mushroom diploid cells are formed, later dividing into haploid spores—the height of the mushroom aids the dispersal of these sexually produced offspring.

Plants

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Like animals, plants have developed specialized male and female gametes.[10] Within most familiar plants, male gametes are contained within hard coats, forming pollen. The female gametes of plants are contained within ovules; once fertilized by pollen these form seeds which, like eggs, contain the nutrients necessary for the development of the embryonic plant.

Female (left) and male (right) cones are the sex organs of pines and other conifers.
Many plants have flowers and these are the sexual organs of those plants. Flowers are usually hermaphroditic, producing both male and female gametes. The female parts, in the center of a flower, are the carpels—one or more of these may be merged to form a single pistil. Within carpels are ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization. The male parts of the flower are the stamens: these long filamentous organs are arranged between the pistil and the petals and produce pollen at their tips. When a pollen grain lands upon the top of a carpel, the tissues of the plant react to transport the grain down into the carpel to merge with an ovule, eventually forming seeds.
In pines and other conifers the sex organs are cones and have male and female forms. The more familiar female cones are typically more durable, containing ovules within them. Male cones are smaller and produce pollen which is transported by wind to land in female cones. As with flowers, seeds form within the female cone after pollination.
Because plants are immobile, they depend upon passive methods for transporting pollen grains to other plants. Many plants, including conifers and grasses, produce lightweight pollen which is carried by wind to neighboring plants. Other plants have heavier, sticky pollen that is specialized for transportation by insects. The plants attract these insects with nectar-containing flowers. Insects transport the pollen as they move to other flowers, which also contain female reproductive organs, resulting in pollination.

Animals

2008-04-17T23:01:00.001-07:00

Sexually reproducing animals spend their lives as diploid organisms, with the haploid stage reduced to single cell gametes.[5] The gametes of animals have male and female forms—spermatozoa and egg cells. These gametes combine to form embryos which develop into a new organism.
The male gamete, a spermatozoan (produced within a testicle), is a small cell containing a single long flagellum which propels it.[6] Spermatozoa are extremely reduced cells, lacking many cellular components that would be necessary for embryonic development. They are specialized for motility, seeking out an egg cell and fusing with it in a process called fertilization.
Female gametes are egg cells (produced within ovaries), large immobile cells that contain the nutrients and cellular components necessary for a developing embryo.[7] Egg cells are often associated with other cells which support the development of the embryo, forming an egg. In mammals, the fertilized embryo instead develops within the female, receiving nutrition directly from its mother.
Animals are usually mobile and seek out a partner of the opposite sex for mating. Animals which live in the water can mate using external fertilization, where the eggs and sperm are released into and combine within the surrounding water.[8] Most animals that live outside of water, however, must use transfer sperm from male to female to achieve internal fertilization.
In most birds, both excretion and reproduction is done through a single posterior opening, called the cloaca—male and female birds touch cloaca to transfer sperm, a process called "cloacal kissing".[9] In many other terrestrial animals, males use specialized sex organs to assist the transport of sperm—these male sex organs are called intromittent organs. In humans and other mammals this male organ is the penis, which enters the female reproductive tract (called the vagina) to achieve insemination—a process called sexual intercourse. The penis contains a tube through which semen (a fluid containing sperm) travels. In female mammals the vagina connects with the uterus, an organ which directly supports the development of a fertilized embryo within (a process called gestation

Sexual reproduction

2008-04-17T22:58:00.000-07:00

Sexual reproduction is a process where organisms form offspring that combine genetic traits from both parents.[1] Genetic traits are contained within the DNA of chromosomes — by combining a set of chromosomes from each parent, an organism is formed containing a doubled set of chromosomes. This double-chromosome stage is called "diploid", while the single chromosome stage is "haploid". Diploid organisms can, in turn, form haploid cells that randomly inherit one of the two different chromosomes, a process called meiosis.[2] Meiosis also involves a stage of chromosomal crossover, in which regions of DNA are exchanged between the two chromosomes to form a new pair of mixed chromosomes. These processes result in the recombining of different genetic traits.
In many organisms the haploid stage has been reduced to specialized cells called gametes specialized to recombine and form a new diploid organism. Sometimes gametes are externally similar, particularly in size (isogamy); often, however, an asymmetry has evolved such that the gametes are different in size and other aspects (anisogamy).[3] By convention, the larger gamete (called an egg cell or ovum) is considered female, while the smaller gamete (called a sperm) is considered male. An individual that produces exclusively large gametes is female, and one that produces exclusively small gametes is male. An individual that produces both types of gametes is a hermaphrodite; in many cases hermaphrodites are able to self-fertilize and produce offspring on their own, without a second organism
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sexual_cycle.svg#file

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2008-04-17T22:56:00.000-07:00

This article is about biological sex. For alternate uses, such as sexual intercourse and the social concept of gender, see Sex (disambiguation).

Sex in animals involves the fusion of a sperm and an egg cell.
In biology, sex is a process of combining and mixing genetic traits, often resulting in the specialization of organisms into male and female reproductive roles. Sexual reproduction involves combining specialized cells (called gametes) to form offspring that inherit traits from both parents. Gametes can be identical in form and function, but in many cases an asymmetry has evolved such that two types of gametes exist: male gametes are small and are optimized to transport their genetic information, while female gametes are large and carry the nutrients necessary for the development of the child organism.
An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces: males produce male gametes (sperm) while females produce female gametes (egg cells); organisms which produce both male and female gametes are hermaphrodites. Frequently physical differences are associated with the different sexes of an organism; these sexual dimorphisms can reflect the different reproductive pressures the sexes experience. In some cases female organisms also have the role of carrying offspring through the first part of development, a process called gestation.

Virginity Testing in South Africa

2008-04-17T21:14:00.001-07:00

120,000 South Africans are estimated to die this year of AIDS-related illnesses and more than 100,000 AIDS orphans are there. This has made community leaders extremely interested in reviving the old cultural tradition of virginity testing as a way to safeguard against AIDS. They believe that by testing for virginity, they are protecting themselves by telling people to abstain from sex. These exams have become extremely popular and hundreds of girls wait in line for up to three hours to be tested. Government officials in Zulu estimate that tens of thousands are being examined each month. Many Western critics claim that this method is just "putting raging teen hormones in temporary check by creating a culture of fear." These critics believe that both boys and girls need to be educated about sex, condoms, AIDS, and STD's instead. Leaders, however, refuse to educate about condoms because they believe that this will spark curiosity and that the boys and girls will try it. There are increasing reports of parents beating their children for failure to pass virginity examinations. The Ministry of Health has many concerns about the testing, but will not do anything because of the sheer size of the AIDS epidemic and does not want to curb efforts to halt the spread of the disease (Singer, http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/2000/06/02/pls4.html).
In South Africa, particularly in Zulu, infants as young as 4 months are being tested to protect them against child abuse. Even women as old as 50 undergo these examinations to show that they are becoming socially prestigious. One girl says, "This is not the time to be sleeping with boys. We have isolated ourselves from those girls who sleep with boys. They are not our friends." This is the type of attitude that is prominent within these communities. Newly branded virgins often wear colorful dots on their foreheads to show their purity to the world. This is not always a good idea, however. Because of the existing myth that having sexual intercourse with a virgin will cure you of AIDS, many women are being raped after undergoing examinations that show that they are a virgin (Murphy, http://www.aegis.com/news/lt/1999/LT990702.html).
At one particular school in Zulu, about half of the 1,500 students have undergone a virginity test. Fewer than 30 have failed. At times, the testing can be cause for major celebration of Zulu culture, where they slaughter cows and have large celebrations. The boys are also often tested. The penises are checked. A hard foreskin is a sign of purity. A wire is placed between two trees about three feet off of the ground. The boys are instructed to urinate about the wire, without using their hands. If they urinate in a straight line, they are virgins. If it is a shower, they are impure. They are also told to urinate in the sand. The urine of a virgin makes a straight hole, they claim. South Africa's Commission on Gender Equality held a special meeting on virginity testing and determined that it is a bad thing on the whole, but recognizes that individuals have the right to practice their cultural traditions. One of the problems is that there are no babysitters in South Africa. Parents return from work in the evening and do not know what their children have been up to during the day. Many parents believe that these tests will be a cure for AIDS because virgins will congregate with virgins and the impure will be shunned. Tests are also performed in five other schools in Zulu on children as young as six so that they can "get used to it." Sex education does not sound like it is plausible in the near future. A local schoolteacher says, "We are against the use of condoms. We think condoms promote lust for sex. If a person has condoms he can go to another man's wife knowing he will not get her pregnant. I don't think we should teach children about such things""(McGreal, http://www.mg.co.za/mg/news/99sep2/29sep-aids_virgin.html).
There are many questions that are raised about the inspections such as:
how much anatomical knowledge do those doing the testing have?
how do they know that a broken hymen is not the result of sport or even child abuse?
how hygienic are the inspections?
If the first girl inspected has HIV, and the same pair of gloves are used on the rest of the girls in the row, they can all become infected with the virus (Strachan, http://www.hst.org/za/update/44/policy4.html).
Resources
http://www.saartjie.co.za/feb2000/hymen23.html
http://lynx.dac.neu.edu/k/kakelly/virgins/virgins.html
http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/women/2000/apeal_turkey.html
http://uk.news.yahoo.com/001214/80/as7x9.html
http://hr-action.org/thr/Apress-vt.html
http://generation-y.com/stories/011698/turkish.html
http://www.ama-assn.org/special/womh/library/readroom/vol_282a/jlf90016.html
http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/2000/06/02/pls4.html
http://www.aegis.com/news/lt/1999/LT990702.html
http://www.mg.co.za/mg/news/99sep2/29sep-aids_virgin.html
http://www.hst.org/za/update/44/policy4.html

Virginity Testing in Turkey

2008-04-17T21:13:00.001-07:00

In Turkey, the government has stepped in to try to curb the controversy over virginity testing after five girls, aged 12-16, tried to commit suicide after being ordered to have the tests performed because they came home late to their dormitories one night. Women and Family Affairs Minister Isilay Saygin tried to say that the situation was of little importance. He said, "Girls of 12 and 13 are falling pregnant. If girls commit suicide because of the virginity tests, they would have committed suicide anyway. It is not that important. We need to lay down certain conditions as a deterrent." (Associated Press, http://hr-action.org/thr/Apress-vt.html).
Virginity is seen as highly important in Muslim culture, but the tests seem to mainly occur in Turkey, where Turkish law states that the husbands are the head of the family. For a new bride, virginity is of extreme importance, symbolized by the red ribbon belt that she wears on her wedding day (Associated Press, http://generation-y.com/stories/011698/turkish.html).
In Turkey, a cross-sectional study in the form of a self-administered survey was given to forensic physicians in Turkey. 118 physicians completed the survey and the results are quite interesting. 68% believed that virginity examinations are inappropriate if there is no allegation of sexual assault, however, 45% had conducted examinations for social reasons. Most respondents (93%) believed that these exams are psychologically traumatic for the patients and 58% reported that at least half of patients undergo these exams against their will (Women's Health Information Center, http://www.ama-assn.org/special/womh/library/readroom/vol_282a/jlf90016.html).
Some of the social reasons for performing these exams are as follows: consensual sexual intercourse between minors, certification that intercourse had not taken place prior to divorce, suspicions of consensual sexual intercourse between adults or immoral behavior, forced marriage because of a failed virginity examination, no vaginal bleeding after first marital intercourse, and certification of virginity before marriage (Women's Health Information Center, http://www.ama-assn.org/special/womh/library/readroom/vol_282a/jlf90016.html).
It is interesting to note that virginity examinations violate guarantees of freedom from discrimination found in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the European Convention on Human Rights, and the Convention on the Elimination of All Form of Discrimination Against Women, all of which are international human rights standards that Turkey has ratified (Women's Health Information Center, http://www.ama-assn.org/special/womh/library/readroom/vol_282a/jlf90016.html).

Virginity Testing in India

2008-04-17T21:05:00.000-07:00

In India there is a centuries-old custom of "Kukari ki Rasam" (thread ritual), where a skein of thread is used to detect the presence of an intact hymen. It isn't just used to torture women, but is often used so that the bride's family can make money "Impure" brides are beaten to reveal the names of their "lovers" and then these lovers are forced to pay large amounts of money to the bride's family. Sansi women will often name any man that they know just to stop the torture that they are undergoing. A local schoolteacher says that it is irrelevant that they are forced to name the men. He says, "Here the brides are beaten to make them admit to affairs." The police claim that they are unable to do anything because this is not illegal, rather just immoral. Virginity tests are not covered under the Indian Penal Code and therefore cannot be considered a crime so a case cannot be filed against these practices.
In India, women's organizations are active, but the movement to end virginity testing is not strong as of yet. Other tests used in India are the "Paani ki Dheej" (purity by water) or "Agnipariksha" (trial by fire). In the purity by water test, the woman has to hold her breath under water while another person takes one hundred steps. If she is unable to do this, she is not considered a virgin. In the trial by fire test, the brides have to walk with red-hot iron in their hands with just a plate made out of leaves and dough to shield her hands from the heat. If her hands are burnt, she is considered to be impure. Sansi women are often not willing to draw attention to this problem, so the government is unable to do very much. Many Sansi people feel that whatever happens within the home between husband and wife is private, so education is probably the best route to invoke any change in the cultural practice (Sharma, http://uk.news.yahoo.com/001214/80/as7x9.html).

Virginity Testing

2008-04-17T21:02:00.000-07:00

Virginity testing has become a relatively new trend in many countries, especially those that are highly concerned with women's honor or serious diseases such as AIDS. Virginity testing is seen as a way to curb women's sexual activity before marriage and keeping them "pure" until then. There is much controversy and debate as to whether or not this infringes upon women's human rights, even if they are willing participants.
Virginity testing is done is different ways, depending upon the country. Primarily, the vagina is examined to see whether or not the girl's hymen is intact. The hymen is defined as "the thin membrane of skin that may stretch across part of the vaginal opening". An opening in the hymen allows the menstrual flow to pass out of the body. Most girls are born with a hymen, although some are born without it. There are many doctors who say that the hymen is not a good indicator of sexual virginity for several reasons:
a girl may have been born without a hymen
the hymen can easily be ruptured during normal physical activities and sport
the hymen can be stretched open by the use of tampons
Often the bed sheets from a couple's wedding night are examined to see if any blood is present on them because a virgin is supposed to bleed during her first sexual encounter. However, a woman may be a virgin and still not bleed during her first intercourse (McIntosh, http://www.saartjie.co.za/feb2000/hymen23.html)
During the Middle Ages, there were many alternate methods to testing one's virginity. One could conduct a urine test (a virgin's urine is clear and sparkling), or look at which way a woman's breasts point (a virgin's breasts point up). In Middle Age romances (where a urine test would not be at all romantic), there are many stories of magical objects used to test virginity or marital fidelity. A common object is the magic drinking horn. Women who attempted to drink from it and were not faithful to their husbands would spill the wine inside of the magic horn. During the Middle Ages people were much more interested in the question of a woman's virginity than that of a man (http://lynx.dac.neu.edu/k/kakelly/virgins/virgins.html).
Amnesty International's formal statement and position in regards to virginity testing is that "forcibly subjecting [women] to so-called 'virginity tests' is an egregious form of gender-based violence constituting torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment" (http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/women/2000/apeal_turkey.html).

Fallen For You lyrics

2008-04-17T20:59:00.000-07:00

The first time I saw youI thought you were barefoodYour hair was pulled back, your jelly shoes, I was wondering if I shouldlieAbout my ageBuddy Holly glasses on a Betty Page negativeYou're lookin so classic handpicked by some Hollywood executivejust like Norma JeanI can't believe I've fallen for youI can't believe I've fallen for youway ohway ohway ohthe next time I saw you, you asked for a reasonI let my love come downnow you're spending all your time thinkin how you're gonna get evenand I'm by myselfI can't believe I've fallen for youI can't believe I've fallen for youI can't believe I've fallen for youI can't believe I've fallen for youGood morning nowIt's a good morningThe Hollywood ending it never came easythe bride to be can plainly see and now she says she's ready to kill meAnd I'm so afraidI can't believe I've fallen for youI can't believe I've fallen for youI can't believe I've fallen for youI can't believe I've fallen for you

Never Too Late lyrics

2008-04-17T20:56:00.000-07:00

This world will never beWhat I expectedAnd if I don't belongWho would have guessed itI will not leave aloneEverything that I ownTo make you feel like it's not too lateIt's never too lateEven if I sayIt'll be alrightStill I hear you sayYou want to end your lifeNow and again we tryTo just stay aliveMaybe we'll turn it around'Cause it's not too lateIt's never too lateNo one will ever seeThis side reflectedAnd if there's something wrongWho would have guessed itAnd I have left aloneEverything that I ownTo make you feel likeIt's not too lateIt's never too lateEven if I sayIt'll be alrightStill I hear you sayYou want to end your lifeNow and again we tryTo just stay aliveMaybe we'll turn it around'Cause it's not too lateIt's never too lateThe world we knewWon't come backThe time we've lostCan't get backThe life we hadWon't be ours againThis world will never beWhat I expectedAnd if I don't belongEven if I sayIt'll be alrightStill I hear you sayYou want to end your lifeNow and again we tryTo just stay aliveMaybe we'll turn it around'Cause it's not too lateIt's never too lateMaybe we'll turn it around'Cause it's not too lateIt's never too late (It's never too late)It's not too lateIt's never too late

Teardrops On My Guitar lyrics

2008-04-17T20:54:00.000-07:00

Drew looks at me, I fake a smile so he won't seeThat I want and I'm needing everything that we should beI'll bet she's beautiful, that girl he talks aboutAnd she's got everything that I have to live withoutDrew talks to me, I laugh cause it's so damn funnyThat I can't even see anyone when he's with meHe says he's so in love, he's finally got it right,I wonder if he knows he's all I think about at night[Chorus:]He's the reason for the teardrops on my guitarThe only thing that keeps me wishing on a wishing starHe's the song in the car I keep singing, don't know why I doDrew walks by me, can he tell that I can't breathe?And there he goes, so perfectly,The kind of flawless I wish I could beShe'd better hold him tight, give him all her loveLook in those beautiful eyes and know she's lucky cause[Repeat Chorus]So I drive home alone, as I turn out the lightI'll put his picture down and maybeGet some sleep tonightHe's the reason for the teardrops on my guitarThe only one who's got enough of me to break my heartHe's the song in the car I keep singing, don't know why I doHe's the time taken up, but there's never enoughAnd he's all that I need to fall into..Drew looks at me, I fake a smile so he won't see

Endless Love lyrics

2008-04-17T20:44:00.000-07:00

My loveThere's only you in my lifeThe only thing that's rightMy first loveYou're every breath that I takeYou're every step I makeAnd II want to shareAll my love with youNo one else will doAnd your eyesThey tell me how much you careOh yesYou will always beMy endless loveTwo heartsTwo hearts that beat as oneOur lives have just begunAnd foreverI'll hold you close in my armsI can't resist your charmsAnd loveI'd play the foolFor youI'm sureYou know I don't mind'Cause babyYou mean the world to meI know I've found in youMy endless loveAnd loveI'd play the foolFor youI'm sureThat you know I don't mind'Cause babyYou'll be the only one'Cause no one can denyThis love I have insideAnd I'll give it all to youMy love My love, my loveMy endless love

Touch My Body lyrics

2008-04-17T20:42:00.000-07:00

MC, you're the place to beOh yeah, oh yeah, oh yeah, oh yeah, oh yeahOh yeah, oh yeah, oh yeah, oh yeahI know that you've been waiting for itI'm waiting tooIn my imagination I'd be all up on youI know you got that fever for meHundred and twoAnd boy I know I feel the sameMy temperature's through the roofIf there's a camera up in hereThen it's gonna leave with meWhen I do (I do)If there's a camera up in hereThen I'd best not catch this flickOn YouTube (YouTube)'Cause if you run your mouth and bragAbout this secret rendezvousI will hunt you down'Cause they be all up in my bidnessLike a Wendy interviewBut this is privateBetween you and ITouch my bodyPut me on the floorWrestle me aroundPlay with me some moreTouch my bodyThrow me on the bedI just wanna make you feelLike you never did.Touch my bodyLet me wrap my thighsAll around your waistJust a little tasteTouch my bodyKnow you love my curvesCome on and give me what I deserveAnd touch my body.Boy you can put me on youLike a brand new white teeI'll hug your body tighterThan my favorite jeansI want you to caress meLike a tropical breezeAnd float away with youIn the Caribbean SeaIf there's a camera up in hereThen it's gonna leave with meWhen I do (I do)If there's a camera up in hereThen I'd best not catch this flickOn YouTube (YouTube)'Cause if you run your mouth and bragAbout this secret rendezvousI will hunt you down'Cause they be all up in my bidnessLike a Wendy interviewBut this is privateBetween you and ITouch my bodyPut me on the floorWrestle me aroundPlay with me some moreTouch my bodyThrow me on the bedI just wanna make you feelLike you never did.Touch my bodyLet me wrap my thighsAll around your waistJust a little tasteTouch my bodyKnow you love my curvesCome on and give me what I deserveAnd touch my body.I'm gonna treat you like a teddy bearYou won't wanna go nowhereIn the lap of luxuryBaby just turn to meYou won't want for nothing boyI will give you plentyTouch my bodyTouch my bodyPut me on the floorWrestle me aroundPlay with me some moreTouch my bodyThrow me on the bedI just wanna make you feelLike you never did.Touch my bodyLet me wrap my thighsAll around your waistJust a little tasteTouch my bodyKnow you love my curvesCome on and give me what I deserveAnd touch my body.Oh yeah oh yeah oh yeahOh yeah oh yeahOh oh oh oh yeahTouch my body...

Toxic lyrics

2008-04-17T20:38:00.000-07:00

Baby, can’t you seeI’m callingA guy like youShould wear a warningIt’s dangerousI’m fallin’There’s no escapeI can’t waitI need a hitBaby, give me itYou’re dangerousI’m lovin’ itToo highCan’t come downLosing my headSpinning ‘round and ‘roundDo you feel me nowWith a taste of your lipsI’m on a rideYou're toxic I'm slipping underWith a taste of a poison paradiseI’m addicted to youDon’t you know that you’re toxicAnd I love what you doDon’t you know that you’re toxicIt’s getting lateTo give you upI took a sipFrom my devil's cupSlowlyIt’s taking over meToo highCan’t come downIt’s in the airAnd it’s all aroundCan you feel me nowWith a taste of your lipsI’m on a rideYou're toxic I'm slipping underWith a taste of a poison paradiseI’m addicted to youDon’t you know that you’re toxicAnd I love what you doDon’t you know that you’re toxicDon't you know that you're toxic[x2]With a taste of your lipsI'm on a rideYou're toxic I'm slipping underWith a taste of a poison paradiseI'm addicted to youDon't you know that you're toxicIntoxicate me nowWith your lovin' nowI think I'm ready nowI think I'm ready nowIntoxicate me nowWith your lovin' nowI think I'm ready now

Baby One More Time"

2008-04-17T20:33:00.000-07:00

Oh baby, babyOh baby, babyOh baby, babyHow was I supposed to knowThat something wasn't right hereOh baby babyI shouldn't have let you goAnd now you're out of sight, yeahShow me, how you want it to beTell me baby'Cause I need to know now what we've got[CHORUS:]My loneliness is killing meI must confess, I still believeWhen I'm not with you I lose my mindGive me a signHit me baby one more timeOh baby, babyThe reason I breathe is youBoy you got me blindedOh baby, babyThere's nothing that I wouldn't doThat's not the way I planned itShow me, how you want it to beTell me baby'Cause I need to know now what we've got[Repeat CHORUS]Oh baby, babyOh baby, babyAh, yeah, yeahOh baby, babyHow was I supposed to knowOh pretty babyI shouldn't have let you goI must confess, that my lonelinessIs killing me nowDon't you know I still believeThat you will be hereAnd give me a signHit me baby one more time[Repeat CHORUS]I must confess that my lonelinessIs killing me nowDon't you know I still believeThat you will be hereAnd give me a signHit me baby one more time

I'll Never Go

2008-04-17T20:29:00.000-07:00

You would always ask me
Those words i say
And telling me what it means to me
Every single day
You always act this way
For how many times i told you
I love you
For this is all i know
Come to me and hold me
And you will see
The love i give
For you still hold the key
Every single day
You always act this way
For how many times i told you
I love you
For this is all i know
Chorus:
I'll never go far away from you
Even the sky will tell you
That i need you so
For this is all i know
I'll never go far away from you
Come to me and hold me
And you will see
The love i give
For you still hold the key
Every single day
You always act this way
For how many times i told you
I love you
For this is all i know
Chorus
I'll never go far away from you
Even the sky will tell you
That i need you so
For this is all i know
I'll never go far away from you
Chorus 2x

Beauty of NATION

2008-04-17T20:25:00.000-07:00

The beauty of thThe beauty of the mother earth with the unity of every nation would save the e mother earth with the unity of every nation would save the

Love Qoutes

2008-04-17T20:22:00.000-07:00

I'm scared to fall in love, scared to fall fast, because every time I fall in love... it never seems to last.
I'm so sad when you're gone. Come back soon. Miss you!
In my dreams and in our love for 1 another there are no impossibilities.
Love is like quicksand - the deeper you fall in it the harder it is to get out.
You're just my cup of tea.
Love is like the truth, sometimes it prevails, sometimes it hurts.
Love is not something you feel. It's something you do.
Meeting you was fate, becoming your friend was choice, but falling in love with you was completely out of my control.
My girlfriend told me, I should be more Affectionate, so i got two Girlfriends.
My heart is breaking since you went away
My love belongs to you.
My love is ever in your service.
One good thing about internet dating: you're guaranteed to click with whomever you meet.
One word frees us of all the weight and pain of life: that word is love.
To feel love gives pleasure to one; to express it gives pleasure to two.
To the world you might be one person, but to one person you might be the world
True love is like ghosts, which everybody talks about and few have seen.
True love never lives happily ever after - true love has no ending.
Trust, Love & Keep Moving (Growing)
We are, each of us angels with only one wing; and we can only fly by embracing one another.
We must love one another or die
When you left, I stopped smiling
Where ever I go, whatever I do, I carry a little part of you with me right here in the center of me heart.
Who cares whether this is a poem or rhyme, I will love you until the end of time...
With love and patience, nothing is impossible.
You gotta learn to laugh, it's the way to true love.
You need Money to call someone Honey.
You never lose by loving. You always lose by holding back.
You touched my heart and changed my life for the better.
You're the icing on my cake. What's that? Chocolate, of course...
You're the laughter in my life.
You, yourself, as much as anybody in the entire universe, deserve your love and affection.
Your love's better than a cold beer on a warm day. Almost...OK then, definitely!
Your love's better than a home run with the bases

Horoscope for the Week

2008-04-17T20:21:00.000-07:00

ARIES (Mar. 21- April 20)All your energy should be directed into moneymaking opportunities. Opportunities for advancement at work are apparent. Take time to catch up on gossip and make plans to do a little adventure travel. You may have the energy to clear up that mound of paperwork facing you.Your lucky day this week will be Sunday.
TAURUS (Apr. 21- may 21)You may want to take a look at your direction in life. Your self esteem will benefit. Friends will be loyal and caring. Your involvement in interest groups may bring you popularity. Check your personal papers and make sure everything is in order.Your lucky day this week will be Wednesday.
GEMINI (May 22-June 21)Don't be critical or overly opinionated with dislikes; it could cause disapproval and unwanted opposition. Deception will play an important factor in relationships. Travel will be to your advantage; however, it might be expensive. Visit friends who have not been well.Your lucky day this week will be Friday.
CANCER (June 22-July 22)You will enjoy the interaction with youngsters and take great pride in the projects you've completed. Work quietly at your own goals and forget about situations that you can do little about. Positive connections can be made if you get involved in environmental organizations. It might be best not to spend your money on luxuries this week.

Clinton Steps Up Call to Count Voided Florida, Michigan Contests.htm

2008-04-17T20:17:00.000-07:00

Hillary Clinton strengthened her pitch to recognize the discounted Florida and Michigan primaries Saturday following the collapse of yet another re-do primary proposal.
The pitch potentially lays the groundwork for her to make the case to uncommitted superdelegates that she’s the popular vote favorite should she narrow the gap with Barack Obama in the upcoming contests.
“I will … keep fighting to make sure the votes of the people in Florida and Michigan are counted,” Clinton said in Hillsboro, Ore., Saturday. “2.3 million voters turned out.”
The New York senator won both primaries in January, but neither candidate campaigned there ahead of the vote and Obama was not even on the ballot in Michigan. The Democratic Party stripped the states of their delegations for holding early primaries in violation of party rules.
“Now some say their votes should be ignored and that the popular vote in Michigan and Florida should just be discounted. Well I have a different view,” Clinton said Saturday. “The popular vote in Florida and Michigan has already been counted. It was determined by election results, it was certified by election officials in each state. It’s been officially tallied by the secretary of state in each state.”
Clinton is arguing anew that those elections were bona fide tests of the candidates’ appeal among voters, after Michigan Democrats on Friday formally ditched the latest effort to hold a do-over primary. Florida has done the same, effectively killing chances of holding re-dos of any kind.
The decisions mean that hopes for a resolution to seat the delegates at the August convention mostly rest on the two Democrats’ campaigns striking a compromise on how to allocate the delegations. And while Obama’s campaign has firmly resisted seating the delegations based on the states’ January primaries, Clinton’s campaign has pushed to have the states represented at the August Democratic National Convention in Denver.
Democratic National Committee Chairman Howard Dean this week even said he’s committed to finding a way to seat both delegations, though it’s unclear how that would happen.
With the candidates 134 total delegates apart, Florida and Michigan could tip the race, especially if Clinton carries significant wins in the 10 remaining Democratic contests. It’s impossible for either candidate to score enough delegates to clinch the nomination on pledged delegates alone in those contests. So aside from Florida’s and Michigan’s 313 pledged delegates, the superdelegates — party officials and insiders not bound

"When You Say Nothing At All"

2008-04-17T19:59:00.000-07:00

It's amazingHow you can speakRight to my heartWithout saying a word,You can light up the darkTry as I mayI could never explainWhat I hear whenYou don't say a thing
[CHORUS:]The smile on your faceLets me knowThat you need meThere's a truthIn your eyesSaying you'll never leave meThe touch of your hand saysYou'll catch meWhenever I fallYou say it bestWhen you sayNothing at all
All day longI can hear peopleTalking out loudBut when you hold me nearYou drown out the crowd(The crowd)Try as they mayThey could never defineWhat's been saidBetween yourHeart and mine
[Repeat chorus twice]
(You say it bestWhen you sayNothing at allYou say it bestWhen you sayNothing at all)
The smile on your faceThe truth in your eyesThe touch of your handLet's me knowThat you need me
[Repeat chorus]
(You say it bestWhen you sayNothing at allYou say it bestWhen you sayNothing at all)
The smile on your faceThe truth in your eyesThe touch of your handLet's me knowThat you need me
(You say it bestWhen you sayNothing at allYou say it bestWhen you sayNothing at all)